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| author | Alexander Kirillov <sasha@src.gnome.org> | 2001-02-13 17:21:14 +0000 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Alexander Kirillov <sasha@src.gnome.org> | 2001-02-13 17:21:14 +0000 |
| commit | 0dfc3912919dc870fba468d35921c5671c06de24 (patch) | |
| tree | d7183e4de403f5b7e13f94e25e08f54935bcab0c | |
| parent | d61c7a75962e9cbce845a7df3c91dd84d5bc08c2 (diff) | |
| download | gnome-user-docs-0dfc3912919dc870fba468d35921c5671c06de24.tar.gz gnome-user-docs-0dfc3912919dc870fba468d35921c5671c06de24.tar.xz gnome-user-docs-0dfc3912919dc870fba468d35921c5671c06de24.zip | |
Moved files in unix-primer and glossary to C subdirs
| -rw-r--r-- | glossary/C/glossary.sgml | 1648 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | unix-primer/C/unix-primer.sgml | 827 |
2 files changed, 2475 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/glossary/C/glossary.sgml b/glossary/C/glossary.sgml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7175f01 --- /dev/null +++ b/glossary/C/glossary.sgml @@ -0,0 +1,1648 @@ +<!DOCTYPE glossary PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook V3.1//EN"> +<glossary id="index"> + <docinfo> + <author><firstname>Alexander</firstname> + <surname>Kirillov</surname></author> + <author><firstname>Kirrily</firstname> <surname>Robert + </surname></author> + </docinfo> + <title>Glossary</title> + + + +<!-- ===LETTER A=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="A"><title>A</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="applet"><glossterm>Applet</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>An application working inside a small window in a panel. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="applauncher"><glossterm>Application launcher</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A button in the panel which launches an application or executes + a command when pressed. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="ascii"><glossterm><acronym>ASCII</acronym></glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>American Standard Code for Information Interchange; the + standard describing a collection of characters and codes + (i.e. sequences of zeros and ones, or numbers) assigned to + them. ASCII characters include + Latin letters, common punctuation marks, some special symbols + usually found on the keyboard such as & and $, and some + control symbols, such as the codes used for denoting end of + line and end of file; it does not include accented + symbols. The corresponding codes run from 0 to 127. + </para> + <para> When you see a mention of an <quote>ASCII file</quote> or + <quote>ASCII text</quote> somewhere, it usually means a plain + text file which only uses symbols defined in ASCII standard, + with no formatting information such as fonts to be used. + </para> <para> ASCII is defined as a standard of American + National Standards Institute (ANSI); the offical reference is + <quote>ANSI X3.4-1986</quote>. You can find a reproduction of + it in many places on the Internet, for example, on <ulink + type="http" + url="http://coverage.cnet.com/Resources/Info/Glossary/Terms/ascii2.html"> + CNET Web page</ulink>. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="encoding"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="attachment"> + <glossterm>Attachment</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Any file accompanying an e-mail message in a special format so + that it can be viewed or saved to disk independently of the main + message body. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +</glossdiv> + +<!-- ===LETTER =================================== --> +<glossdiv id="B"><title>B</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="background"><glossterm>Background</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + To make a program run without any visible output; to put a program + which is already running into the background. + </para> + <para> + On the UNIX command line, the character <literal>&</literal> + appended to a command will make that command run in the + background. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="foreground"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="binary"><glossterm>Binary</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + An executable program, so called because the file containing the + program consists of machine-readable binary digits, i.e. ones and + zeroes. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="bit"><glossterm>Bit</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>The minimal possible unit of information, a digit which + can take values 0 or 1. Saying + that the file has length n bits is equivalent to saying that it + can be written as a sequence of n zeros and ones. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="byte"><glossterm>Byte</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>8 <link linkend="bit">bits</link>, i.e. a sequence of 8 + zeros and ones.There are 256 + possible such sequences, so one can also say that one byte + represents a number ranging from 0 to 255. + </para> + <para> Byte is the basic building block of filesystem: all files + are composed of bytes. For text files, each byte represents + one symbol (see definition of <link + linkend="encoding">encoding</link> for more information). + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER C=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="C"><title>C</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="cache"><glossterm>Cache</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A short-term storage area in RAM or on the hard disk. Many + programs use caches to store recently-accessed files or other + items. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="charset"> + <glossterm>Character set (charset) + </glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A collection of symbols, such as letters of one or several + alphabets, digits, punctuation marks, etc. Commonly used + together with <link linkend="encoding">encoding</link>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="clipboard"><glossterm>Clipboard</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The temporary buffer into which text or other data can be + copied, to be used later by pasting into a different location. + Most applications support the clipboard either through native + mouse-based cut and paste functionality of <link + linkend="xwin">X Window System</link>, or through specialised + menus and other interfaces. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="clo"><glossterm>Command line options</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Parameters or arguments given on the UNIX command line after a + program name, which tell the program how to run. For instance, in + the command <literal>ls -l</literal> the <literal>-l</literal> is + a command line option telling the <command>ls</command> program to + produce a <quote>long</quote> listing. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="cursor"><glossterm>Cursor</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A highlighted or animated icon which indicates the current + position of the mouse on the screen, or the position where + keyboard input will occur in a text window. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER D=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="D"><title>D</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="daemon"><glossterm>Daemon</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A background process providing basic system or network services. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="desktop"><glossterm>Desktop</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The visible screen area, on which windows, icons, and other graphical + items may be placed. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="vdesktop"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="desktopenv"><glossterm>Desktop environment</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Software which provides graphical user interface for users + desktop. In addtition to capabilities provided by a <link + linkend="wmanager">window manager</link> (that is, ability + to move, resize, and hide windows), a desktop environment + usually also includes such elements of GUI as a File Manager + with drag-and-drop capabilities, Panel used for keeping your + favorite applications and applets, and a set of other + utilities. Most popular desktop environments for UNIX + include <link linkend="gnome">GNOME</link>, <link + linkend="kde">KDE</link> and CDE (soon to be replaced by + GNOME). + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="device"><glossterm>Device</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A piece of hardware with which the system interacts, such as a + hard disk, modem, or mouse. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="directory"><glossterm>Directory</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A branch within UNIX's hierarchical file system; a + <quote>folder</quote> containing files or other directories + (called <quote>subdirectories</quote>). + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="filesystem"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="dns"><glossterm>DNS</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Domain Name Service; converting domain names (such as + <systemitem>www.gnome.org</systemitem>) into <link + linkend="ipaddress">IP addresses</link> such as + <systemitem>209.116.70.70</systemitem>. If you want to use + domain names, your computer must be configured to connect to + one of DNS servers which would do this conversion. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER E=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="E"><title>E</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="email"><glossterm>Electronic mail (e-mail)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A way of exchanging messages between users of computers + connected to a network (local or Internet). + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="encoding"><glossterm>Encoding</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A correspondence between characters of some <link + linkend="charset">character set</link> and character codes, + i.e. internal computer presentation of the symbols. In order to + be able to read a text file, you need to know its character set + and encoding. + </para> + <para>In most encodings, each symbol is represented by one + <link linkend="byte">byte</link>, which is equivalent to a + number from 0 to 255; the characters corresponding to codes 0 + to 127 coincide with the <link linkend="ascii">ASCII</link> + standard, while the characters with codes higher than 127 vary + between encodings. For Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and similar + character sets, each symbol is represented by 2 bytes. + </para> + <para> The most common encoding is + <systemitem>iso-8859-1</systemitem>; in addition to ASCII + characters, it also contains accented letters covering most of + Western European languages. </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="envar"><glossterm>Environment variable</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A global <quote>setting</quote>, or configuration + parameter, which is available to all applications. Each + environment variable has a name and a value (which usually is a + string of symbols or an integer number). Any application you run + can access any of the environment variables. For example, there + is a standard environment variable <envar>HOME</envar>, whose + value is the user's home directory (for example, + <filename>/home/joe</filename>), and any application which wants + to create a file in your home directory uses this variable to + find out what your home directory is. + </para> + <para> To view all currenlty defined environment variables, use + the command <command>printenv</command> (provided that you have + GNU shell utils package installed). To modify a value of + environment variable, use the command + <command>export + <replaceable>NAME</replaceable>= <replaceable>VALUE</replaceable>; + </command> if you are using bash <link + linkend="shell">shell</link> or <command>setenv + <replaceable>NAME VALUE</replaceable>;</command> if you are + using csh or tcsh <link + linkend="shell">shell</link>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="ethernet"><glossterm>Ethernet</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A protocol for network communication, developed in the 1980s and + commonly used for Local Area Networks (LANs) and other network + communication. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER F=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="F"><title>F</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="file"><glossterm>File</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>Any piece of information (text, graphics, executable) put + together and given a name. All the information you have on the + hard drive is arranged as a collection of files. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="filesystem"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="filesystem"><glossterm>Filesystem</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A collection of all the files and directories on a system + arranged in a tree-like hierarchy. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="file"> + <glossseealso otherterm="directory"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="foreground"><glossterm>Foreground</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + To run a program so that its output is visible to the user, or to + bring a previously <quote>backgrounded</quote> program to the foreground. + Programs running in the foreground can display output and receive + input from the user. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="background"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="ftp"> + <glossterm>File Transfer Protocol (<acronym>FTP</acronym>)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A protocol for exchanging files over the <link + linkend="internet">Internet</link> or local network. There is a + number of utilities based on this protocol, such as + <application>gFTP</application>; you can also use command + <command>ftp</command> on the command line. In addition, most + file managers and Web browsers have built-in FTP capabilities. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="freesoftware"><glossterm>Free software</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>As defined by Free Software Foundation, free software is + software that comes with permission for anyone to use, copy, and + distribute, either verbatim or with modifications, either gratis + or for a fee. In particular, this means that the source code must + be available. + </para> + <para> + This is very close, but not identical, to the notion of <link + linkend="opensource">Open Source</link> software. Detailed + discussion of this and related topics can be found on <ulink + type="http" + url="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html">Free + Software Foundation's Web page</ulink>. + </para> + + <glossseealso otherterm="gpl"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER G=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="G"><title>G</title> +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="gnome"><glossterm><acronym>GNOME</acronym></glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A <link linkend="freesoftware">free</link> <link + linkend="desktopenv">desktop environment</link> for UNIX and + UNIX-like operating systems; one of the two leading desktop + environments for Linux (the other one is <link + linkend="kde">KDE</link>). For more information, please + visit <ulink type="http" url="http:///www.gnome.org/">GNOME + Web site</ulink>. + </para> + <para> Officially, GNOME stands for GNU Network Object Model + Environment. The only part of this name that really matters is + GNU, which is there to indicate that GNOME is a part of the + larger <link linkend="gnu">GNU project</link>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="gnu"><glossterm><acronym>GNU</acronym></glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + GNU's Not UNIX; a project to develop a complete UNIX-like + operating system which is <link linkend="freesoftware">free + software</link>. Combination of tools and utilities produced + by GNU project with <link linkend="linux">Linux</link> kernel + is widely known under the name <quote>Linux operating + system</quote>; more accurately, such a system should be + called GNU/Linux. + </para> + <para> + For more information about GNU project, visit its <ulink + type="http" url="http://www.gnu.org/">Web page</ulink>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="gpl"><glossterm>GNU General Public License + (<acronym>GPL</acronym>)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A software license developed by the Free Software + Foundation. In short, it allows anyone to use, copy, distribute, + or sell the software, in original or modified form, as long as + you distribute the program's source code along with the + binaries, and you distribute them again under the GPL. A copy of + the GPL is included as an appendix to GNOME User's guide. You + can also view GPL on-line on <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl">FSF's Web page</ulink>. + </para> + <para> GPL plays an extremely important role in the free + software movement; almost all of GNU project software, as well + as <link linkend="linux">Linux</link> kernel, is distributed + under GPL. For a detailed discussion of history, ideas and + philosophy related to GPL and free sofware in general, visit + <ulink type="http" url="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy">FSF's Web + page</ulink>. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="freesoftware"> + <glossseealso otherterm="opensource"> + <glossseealso otherterm="gnu"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="gtk"> + <glossterm>GIMP Toolkit (<acronym>GTK</acronym>)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A collection of tools for creating screen widgets + such as scrollbars, menus, checkbuttons, etc. in + applications. GTK is used by all GNOME applications. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER H=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="H"><title>H</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="hot-key"> + <glossterm>Hot Key</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Hot-keys are keyboard combinations used to do actions on a + computer instead of using the mouse to do the same action. + Hot-keys can speed up computer usage. Also known under the name + <quote>keyboard shortcut</quote> or <quote>keyboard + accelerator</quote>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="html"> + <glossterm><acronym>HTML</acronym> + </glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>Hypertext Markup Language; the language in which all the + Web pages in the world are written. HTML can also be used for + e-mails, which allows having nicely formatted e-mails, possibly + including images and links. + </para> + <para> More information about HTML can be found on the Web page + of <ulink type="http" url="http://www.w3c.org">World Wide Web + Consortium</ulink>, which is the official maintainer of HTML + standard. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="http"><glossterm><acronym>HTTP</acronym></glossterm> + <acronym>HTTP</acronym> + <glossdef> + <para> + Hypertext Transfer Protocol; the protocol by which web pages and + other web-accessible resources are delivered. Whenever you are + browsing the Web, your browser uses HTTP to communicate with the + Web server and request a Web page. + </para> + <para> + HTTP is defined in <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1945.txt">RFC 1945</ulink> + (HTTP 1.0) and <ulink + type="http" + url="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2068.txt">RFC 2068</ulink> + (HTTP 1.1). + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER I=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="I"><title>I</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="ide"><glossterm>IDE</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Intergrated Drive Electronics; an interface for connecting + hard drives and other similar devices to your computer. IDE + is an old interface; nowadays, most drives use an enhanced + version of IDE, EIDE. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="SCSI"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="icon"><glossterm>Icon</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A small picture used within a graphical user interface to indicate + a program, file, or other part of a computer system. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="internet"><glossterm>Internet</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>Unless you spent the last 20 years on a deserted island, + you probably know what Internet is. But just in case: Internet + is the network of millions of computers all around the world, + connected to each other by some hardware means (cables, wires, + phone lines, communication satellites) and communicating with + each other using some standard protocols. Internet makes it + possible for users of these computers to send and receive + <link linkend="email">electronic mail</link>, browse the <link + linkend="www">World Wide Web</link>, exchange files (using <link + linkend="ftp">FTP protocol</link>), remotely login into your + computer from other places (using <link + linkend="telnet">telnet</link>), and more. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="ipaddress"> + <glossterm> <acronym>IP</acronym> address</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A unique address assigned to each computer connected to + the <link linkend="internet">Internet</link> or a local + network. Has the form <systemitem>a.b.c.d</systemitem>, where + a,b,c,d are numbers from 0 to 255, subject to a number of rules + and conventions. + </para> + <para>All communication between computers on the Internet is + based on IP addresses; however, on a properly set up network you + can instead use domain names (such as www.gnome.org), which are + automatically transformed to IP addresses using <link + linkend="dns">Domain Name Service</link> (DNS). + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER J=================================== +<glossdiv id="J"><title>J</title> + + + +</glossdiv> + +--> +<!-- ===LETTER K=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="K"><title>K</title> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="kde"><glossterm><acronym>KDE</acronym></glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A <link linkend="desktopenv"> desktop environment</link> for + UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems; one of two leading + desktop environments for Linux (the other one is <link + linkend="gnome">GNOME</link>). For more infrmation visit + <ulink type="http" url="http://www.kde.org">KDE Web + site</ulink>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="kernel"><glossterm>Kernel</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>The core component of an operating system, responsible for + basic operations such as accessing the files, input/output, + managing the processor and memory resources, etc. All other + tools, utilities, and applications use the kernel. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER L=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="L"><title>L</title> +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="linux"><glossterm>Linux</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A free (as in <link linkend="gpl">GNU GPL</link>) <link + linkend="UNIX">UNIX-like</link> operating system, written in + collaboration by hundreds of developers all around the world, + most of them volunteers. One of the most successful and famous + <link linkend="freesoftware">free software</link> projects. + </para> + <para>Strictly speaking, the name <quote>Linux</quote> only + applies to the <link linkend="kernel">kernel</link> of the + operating system. Most of other tools and utilities necessary + for system functioning came from <link linkend="gnu">GNU + project</link>, so the operating system should be properly + called <quote>GNU/Linux</quote>; however, for convenience + reasons most people use the name Linux for the whole operating + system. + </para> + <para>There is a tremendous amount of information about Linux + available on the Internet; good starting points are <ulink + type="http" + url="http://www.linux.com">www.linux.com</ulink>, + <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.linux.org">www.linux.org</ulink>. There is + also a number of good books about Linux available in bookstores; + if you have a Linux system, you probably also have a lot of Linux + documentaion installed on your system. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="login"><glossterm>login</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The process by which a user authenticates herself to a computer + system, usually by typing in a username and password. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="user"> + <glossseealso otherterm="username"> + <glossseealso otherterm="password"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER M=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="M"><title>M</title> + + + + <glossentry id="mail-client"> + <glossterm>Mail Client</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + An application which a user reads and sends + their e-mail with. Also called Mail User Agent (MUA). + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="manpage"><glossterm>Manual page (manpage)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A documentation resource commonly provided with UNIX programs. + Manual pages typically contain concise technical listings of + available <link linkend="clo">command line options</link> and + other settings which affect the running of the program. Can be + viewed using GNOME Help Browser or by typing <command>man + <replaceable>commandname</replaceable></command> on the command + line. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="menu"><glossterm>Menu</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A list of possible actions or options available within a program. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="mime"><glossterm>MIME type</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A <quote>type</quote> of the file, describing what kind of + data and in which format this file contains; for example, MIME + type <filename>image/jpeg</filename> is used for graphic files + in JPEG format. Used by many applications (such as file + manager) to determine what application should be used to open + or edit a given file. This can be configured using + <application>GNOME Control Center</application>. + </para> + <para> The acronym MIME stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail + Extension, since originally it was used to describe types of + files sent in e-mail. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="mount"><glossterm>Mount</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A command instructing the operating system to incorporate + contents of a <link linkend="device">device</link> (such as a + hard drive or a CD-ROM) into the system's link <link + linkend="filesystem">file system</link>. Requires the device + name (e.g. <filename>/dev/cdrom</filename>) and the mount point, + i.e. the name of the directory under which the contents of the + device will be shown (e.g., + <filename>/mnt/cdrom</filename>). You must mount any device + before you can access files on it, and unmount it before + physically disconnnecting or removing the drive. For more + information, see Appendix <citetitle>If you are new to + UNIX</citetitle> in <citetitle>GNOME User's Guide</citetitle> or + manual page for <command>mount</command>. <!-- + +To make a + <link linkend="device">device</link> accessible via the UNIX + <link linkend="filesystem">file system</link>. --> + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="mountpoint"><glossterm>Mount point</glossterm> + <glosssee otherterm="mount"> + <!-- <glossdef> + <para> + The directory on which a <link linkend="device">device</link> is + mounted. For instance, a CD-ROM disk may be mounted on the + directory <filename>/mnt/cdrom</filename>. That directory would + be referred to as the mount point. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="mount"> + </glossdef> --> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="mousecursor"><glossterm>Mouse cursor</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + An small icon (usually an arrow) used to indicate the position + of the mouse on the <link linkend="desktop">desktop</link>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER N=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="N"><title>N</title> + + <glossentry id="nautilus"> + <glossterm>Nautilus</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + <application>Nautilus</application> is the next generation file + manager for <acronym>GNOME</acronym> being written by Eazel. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER O=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="O"><title>O</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="opensource"><glossterm>Open Source</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Refers to software for which both the executable files and + the source code can be freely redistributed and re-used in + other products. This term was introduced by <ulink + type="http" url="http://www.opensource.org/">Open Source + Intiative</ulink>; it is very close, but not identical to + the notion of <link linkend="freesoftware">free + software</link> used by the Free software Foundation. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER P=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="P"><title>P</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="partition"><glossterm>Partition</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Hard disks and other similar devices can be + <quote>divided</quote> into parts which, for all practical + purposes, can be used as separate disks; these parts are + called partitions. For example, you can create partitions of + differrent types (e.g., <filename>FAT32</filename> used by + Windows and <filename>ext2</filename> used by Linux) on the + same disk, format them independently of each other, and so + on. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="device"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="password"><glossterm>Password</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A string of typable characters (letters, numbers, punctuation + marks, etc.) used to authenticate a user's + identity. Required for <link linkend="login">logging in</link>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="pid"> + <glossterm>Process ID (<acronym>PID</acronym>)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The ID number by which the system identifies individual processes. + The first process to run on the system has PID 0. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="process"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="pixel"><glossterm>Pixel</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A single element, or <quote>dot</quote>, on the computer's + screen. A pixel's colour is made up of a mixture of red, green + and blue light. Screen resolution is measured in pixels. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="resolution"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="pointer"><glossterm>Pointer</glossterm> + <glosssee otherterm="mousecursor"> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="ppp"> + <glossterm>Point-to-point protocol (<acronym>PPP</acronym>) </glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A protocol allowing a computer to connect to a <link + linkend="tcpip">TCP/IP</link> network via a modem. A PPP + connection allows an ordinary home computer connected to a + telephone line to become a part of the <link + linkend="internet">Internet</link> + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="postscript"><glossterm>Postscript</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A language for desribing printed pages, developed by + <ulink type="http" url="http://www.adobe.com">Adobe + Corporation</ulink>. Can be used to describe both graphics and + text, black and white or color. Postscript is the + de-facto standard for quality printing; almost all printing + in UNIX is done by converting the data to be printed to + Postscript before sending it to printer. If your printer does + not have built-in Postscript capabilities, then your system is + probably configured to convert Postscript to something you + printer can print. + </para> + <para> Postscript files can also be saved to disk; they usually + have extension <filename>.ps</filename>. There is a number of + utilities for viewing Postscript files, such as + <application>gv</application> or + <application>ggv</application>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="process"><glossterm>Process</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> A task run by the operating system. UNIX is a + multitasking sytem, so at any given moment there are many + processes running. Usually, each command or application you + start is run as a new process; some applications may run several + processes. In addition, there is also a number of system + processes which run in the background to ensure proper + functioning of the system. + </para> + <para>Each process has a unique ID number + (<acronym>PID</acronym>). You can view the list of all the + processes running on your system using <application>GNOME System + monitor (gtop)</application> or + <application>Ktop</application>. See the documentation for these + applications for more information. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER Q=================================== +<glossdiv id="Q"><title>Q</title> + +</glossdiv> +--> + +<!-- ===LETTER R=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="R"><title>R</title> +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="resolution"><glossterm>Resolution</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A measurement indicating the height and width of the visible + screen of a computer in <link linkend="pixel">pixels</link>. + Typical resolutions include 640x480, 800x600, 1024x768, 1280x1024. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="rootdir"><glossterm>Root directory</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The top level directory of a UNIX file system, containing all + other files and directories. Root directory is denoted by a + single slash (<filename>/</filename>). + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="filesystem"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="rootuser"><glossterm>Root (user)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The privileged user on a UNIX system; has full control over + the system and all files on it, including those of other + users. Is typically used by system administartor for system + maintenance. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="sysadmin"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="rootwindow"><glossterm>Root window</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The background of an X11 desktop, in which background images + (<quote>wallpaper</quote>) or running programs may be displayed. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="rpm"> + <glossterm><acronym>RPM</acronym> package</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A file containing in it in a packed form all the files + comprising an application (executable files, documentation, + configuration, etc.), plus some extra information about the + application, such as a brief description and dependency + information. The RPM format makes installing, un-installing, + upgrading, and keeping track of the applications installed on + your system very easy. There is a number of tools available for + working with RPM packages, such as + <application>gnorpm</application> or + <application>Kpackage</application>. For those who prefer the + command line, there is also the <command>rpm</command> command. + See the documentation for these utilities or <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.rpm.org">RPM's Web page</ulink> for more information. + </para> + <para> + RPM format was developed by <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.redhat.com">Red Hat, Inc</ulink>; the acronym + RPM stands for RPM Package Manager. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER S=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="S"><title>S</title> +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="screen"><glossterm>Screen</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The physical monitor device of a computer, consisting of a cathode + ray tube, liquid crystal display, or similar means of displaying + <link linkend="pixel">pixels</link>; the visible picture displayed + on the monitor. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="screensaver"><glossterm>Screensaver</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A program which blanks the screen or displays pretty or + entertaining graphics after a period of inactivity on the + console. Originally intended to prevent <quote>burn-in</quote> + of images on older cathode-ray tubes, screensavers are now used + primarily for entertainment purposes or to lock an unused + terminal, requiring the user to enter a <link + linkend="password">password</link> to return to the normal + display. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="script"><glossterm>Script</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A program written in an interpreted language, i.e. a language + where the commands are executed one by one as you enter them + (as opposed to compiled languages, in which the whole program + must first be translated into machine codes (compiled) to + create an executable file). By far the most common type of + scripts are shell scripts, which are simply sequences of <link + linkend="shell">shell</link> commands. Other popular types of + scripts are javascripts used in Web pages, perl scripts and + Tcl/Tk scripts. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="shell"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="scsi"><glossterm><acronym>SCSI</acronym></glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Small Computer System Interface; an interface for connecting + various computer components, such as hard drives. Works + faster than the more common <link linkend="ide">IDE</link> + interface, but is more expensive, so it is used mostly on + servers. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + + <glossentry id="segfault"> + <glossterm>Segmentation fault (segfault)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A program crash. More precisely, this is what happens when a + program tries to access resources which do not belong to it; + in such a case, for security reasons the operating system + immediately kills the offending program. Segfaults are + almost always caused by bugs in the program. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="shell"><glossterm>Shell</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Any of a number of UNIX programs which interpret commands typed + by the user before passing them to the operating system and + provide other features such as command history, aliasing, and + scripting. Examples include <command>bash</command> and + <command>tcsh</command>. Shells are often displayed in a <link + linkend="terminal">terminal</link> window. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="smtp"> + <glossterm>SMTP</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Simple Mail Transfer Protocol; a protocol used for exchanging + electronic mail messages between machines on a network. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="spam"> + <glossterm>Spam</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Useless e-mail. Spam normally comes in forms of + chain-letters and advertisements for websites or services. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="symlink"><glossterm>Symbolic link (symlink)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A file of special type which contains no data but instead, points + to another file or directory. Equivalent + to a <quote>shortcut</quote> under Windows. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="sysadmin"><glossterm>System administrator</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The person responsible for administration and maintenance of a + computer system. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="rootuser"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER T=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="T"><title>T</title> +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="tarball"><glossterm>Tar archive (tarball)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A file created using the <command>tar</command> (Tape ARchive) + program, which conglomerates multiple files, or even a whole + directory tree, into one file for easy storage or transfer. These + archives are often compressed using the <command>gzip</command> + program and given a filename extension of + <filename>.tar.gz</filename>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="tcpip"><glossterm>TCP/IP</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol; pair of + protocols used for all communication between computers on + the Internet and most local networks. TCP/IP serves as a + basis for higher level protocols (FTP, telnet, SMTP, + …): all information sent from one computer to another + on the Internet, be it an e-mail message or a Web page, is + sent as a collection of TCP/IP packets. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="telnet"><glossterm>Telnet</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A protocol allowing logging into your computer account + via Internet or local network from another computer; also, the + command using this protocol. For more + information, see manual page for <command>telnet</command>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="terminal"><glossterm>Terminal</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>Originally, a physical device, a monitor capable of + showing text output with a connected keyboard. Nowadays, mostly + used to refer to a window on your screen which emulates one of + these terminals and provides a command line prompt for entering + commands and running text-based applications. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="theme"><glossterm>Theme</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + An integrated collection of graphical elements intended to give + the desktop a certain look and feel. Common theme components + include matching backgrounds, icons, and window decorations. + </para> + <para> The look of GNOME desktop is determined by 2 themes: a + GTK theme, which determines the look of application menus, + toolbars and other widgets, and window manager theme, which + determines window borders, buttons, and window title font. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER U=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="U"><title>U</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="unicode"><glossterm>Unicode</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A <link linkend="charset">character set</link> which strives + to include all symbols in all human alphabets, and all special + symbol used by people. It is a work in progress; the latest + version of Unicode (3.0) includes 49,194 characters and covers + languages ranging from English to Chinese to Cherokee. For + more information, see <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.unicode.org/">Unicode + Consortium Web site</ulink>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="UNIX"><glossterm>UNIX</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + An operating system originally developed at Bell Labs in the early + 1970s by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie; any of a large number of + operating systems sharing many features with the original UNIX + operating system, such as Sun's <systemitem>Solaris</systemitem> + or IBM's <systemitem>AIX</systemitem>. + </para> + <para> For legal reasons, operating systems such as + <systemitem>FreeBSD</systemitem> and + <systemitem>Linux</systemitem> can not be called UNIX, but + they do share all important features with UNIX systems; thus, + they are commonly called <quote>UNIX-like</quote>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="usb"><glossterm>USB</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>Universal Serial Bus; an interface for connecting + various peripherals, from keyboard to digital cameras, to the + computer. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="user"><glossterm>User</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + An actual person who uses a computer system, identified by a + unique <link linkend="username">username</link>, or a virtual + person or <quote>role</quote> similarly identified by a unique + username. Virtual users may be used to run <link + linkend="daemon">daemons</link> or other software. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="username"><glossterm>Username</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A string of alphanumeric characters uniquely identifying a <link + linkend="user">user</link> of a computer system. Most usernames + are based on the user's real name, so Mary Smith might have the + username <quote>mary</quote> or <quote>msmith</quote>. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="login"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="url"> + <glossterm>Uniform Resource Locator (<acronym>URL</acronym>)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>An <quote>address</quote>, or <quote>location</quote>, of + a document. Most common URL types are a Web address (such as + <systemitem>http://www.gnome.org</systemitem>), a file on a + FTP server (e.g., + <systemitem>ftp://ftp.gnome.org/pub</systemitem>), or a file + on your own local system (e.g., + <systemitem>file:/usr/doc/</systemitem>). Formal definition + of URL (which is a subset of more general notion, Uniform + Resource Identifier (URI)) is given in <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2396.txt">RFC2396</ulink>, + (beware: as any formal deinition, this one is way too + technical for greater majority of users). + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER V=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="V"><title>V</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="vdesktop"><glossterm>Virtual desktop</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Some <link linkend="wmanager">window managers</link> allow + the user to have several <quote>virtual desktops</quote>;you + could have application windows open and working on all of + them, even though at every moment, only one of the virtual + desktops is shown on your screen. Similar to having several + physical desks in your office so that you can put your + papers on all of them, even though you can only work at one + desk at a time + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="workspace"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER W=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="W"><title>W</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="widget"><glossterm>Widget</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A single element of a graphical user interface, such as a button, + scrollbar, or text input area. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="window"><glossterm>Window</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The interface element used to display most applications under a + windowing GUI such as <link linkend="xwin">X Window + System</link>. Windows typically consist of a main area in + which typing or other work occurs, a title bar (which may + contain buttons to minimize, maximize or close the window), + window-specific menus, and a scroll bar down either side of the + window if required. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="wmanager"><glossterm>Window manager</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + A program which extends the capabilities of the <link + linkend="xwin">X Window System</link> by providing + most of the user-friendly <link linkend="widget">widgets</link> + people expect from a windowing system, such as window borders, + buttons and menus, ways of moving, resizing, and hiding + windows, placing the icons on your desktop, and so on. Examples of + window managers include <application>Sawfish</application> and + <application>Windowmaker</application>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="workspace"><glossterm>Workspace</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + Same as <link linkend="vdesktop">virtual desktop</link>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="www"> + <glossterm>World Wide Web (<acronym>WWW</acronym>)</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + The most visible part of the <link + linkend="internet">Internet</link>; the World Wide Web is + formed by all the + Web pages available on the Internet and all the links among + them. + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm="html"> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER X=================================== --> +<glossdiv id="X"><title>X</title> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="xwin"><glossterm>X Window System</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A graphical system commonly used with UNIX operating + systems; also known under the names X11 or simply X. X is + responsible for putting windows, icons, text, and other + graphical elements on your screen. X is always used in + combination with <link linkend="wmanager">window manager</link>, + which provides higher level functions such as moving, + minimizing, and maximizing windows. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="x11"><glossterm>X11</glossterm> + <glosssee otherterm="xwin"> + </glossentry> + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="xfree"><glossterm>XFree86</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para>A freely redistributable implementation of the + <link linkend="xwin">X Window System</link> + that runs on UNIX-like operating systems (and OS/2). For more + information, visit <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.xfree86.org/">XFree86 Web page</ulink>. + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +<!-- ==================== --> + <glossentry id="xserver"><glossterm>X server</glossterm> + <glossdef> + <para> + </para> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> + + +<!-- ===LETTER Y=================================== +<glossdiv id="Y"><title>Y</title> + +</glossdiv> + +--> +<!-- ===LETTER Z=================================== +<glossdiv id="Z"><title>Z</title> + +</glossdiv> +--> + +<!-- ===LETTER =================================== +<glossdiv id=""><title></title> + ==================== + <glossentry id=""><glossterm></glossterm> + <acronym></acronym> + <glossdef> + <para> + </para> + <glossseealso otherterm=""> + </glossdef> + </glossentry> + + +</glossdiv> +--> + +</glossary> + + + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/unix-primer/C/unix-primer.sgml b/unix-primer/C/unix-primer.sgml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dac4f42 --- /dev/null +++ b/unix-primer/C/unix-primer.sgml @@ -0,0 +1,827 @@ +<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//GNOME//DTD DocBook PNG Variant V1.1//EN"[ +]> +<article id="index"> + + <artheader> + <title> If you are new to Linux/UNIX</title> + <copyright> + <year>2000</year> + <holder>Alexander Kirillov</holder> + </copyright> + + <legalnotice id="legalnotice"> + <para> + Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this + document under the terms of the <ulink type="help" + url="gnome-help:fdl"><citetitle>GNU Free Documentation + License</citetitle></ulink>, Version 1.1 or any later version + published by the Free Software Foundation with no Invariant + Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. You + may obtain a copy of the <citetitle>GNU Free Documentation + License</citetitle> from the Free Software Foundation by + visiting <ulink type="http" url="http://www.fsf.org">their Web + site</ulink> or by writing to: Free Software Foundation, Inc., + 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. + </para> + + <para> + Many of the names used by companies to distinguish their + products and services are claimed as trademarks. Where those + names appear in any GNOME documentation, and those + trademarks are made aware to the members of the GNOME + Documentation Project, the names have been printed in caps + or initial caps. + </para> + </legalnotice> + </artheader> +<sect1 id="introduction"> + <title>Introduction</title> + + <para> One of the goals of GNOME is to make your system easy to use, + without requiring you to learn the technical details about your + operating system. However, there are some basic UNIX notions that + you have to be familiar with even while using the easy graphical + interface provided by GNOME. For the convenience of new users, + these basics are collected in this document. If you need further + information on UNIX, you should read the documentation which came + with your system; there are also a number of books and on-line + guides available for all versions of UNIX. + </para> + + <para> The following guide applies to all versions of UNIX and + UNIX-like operating systems, including both the commercial Unices + such as <systemitem>Solaris</systemitem> and open-source operating + systems such as <systemitem>FreeBSD</systemitem> and + <systemitem>Linux</systemitem>. Some of the material here is based + on <citetitle>Linux Installation and Getting Started</citetitle> + guide, by Matt Welsh, Phil Hughes, David Bandel, Boris Beletsky, + Sean Dreilinger, Robert Kiesling, Evan Liebovitch, and Henry + Pierce. The guide is available for download or online viewing from + the <ulink url="http://www.linuxdoc.org" type="http">Linux + Documentation Project</ulink> or from the <ulink + url="http://www.oswg.org">Open Source Writers Group</ulink>. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="new-users"> + <title>Users</title> + <para> UNIX is a multiuser operating system: it + was designed to allow many users to work on the same computer, + either simultaneously (using several terminals or network + connections) or in turns. Under UNIX, to identify yourself to + the system, you must log in, which entails entering your + <emphasis>login name</emphasis> (the name the system uses to identify + you) and your <emphasis>password</emphasis>, which is your personal key + for logging in to your account. Because only you know your + password, no one else can log in to the system under your user + name. Usually people choose their first or last name or some + variation of it as their login name, so that if your real name + is Sasha Beilinson, your login might be <systemitem>sasha</systemitem>. + </para> + <para> Each user has a separate place to keep his files (called + his <emphasis>home directory</emphasis>). UNIX has a system of + permissions (see <xref linkend="permissions">), so that on a + properly configured UNIX system a user can't change other users' + or system files. This also allows every user to customize + various aspects of the system — in particular, GNOME + behavior — for himself, without affecting other users. + </para> + <para> On any UNIX system there is also a special user, called + <emphasis>system administrator</emphasis>, with the login name + <systemitem>root</systemitem>. He has <emphasis>full</emphasis> + control over the system — including full access to all the + system and users' files. He has the authority to change the + passwords of existing users and add new users, install and + uninstall software, and so on. The system administrator is + usually the person responsible for proper functioning of the + system, so if you have some problems, you should ask him. + </para> + <important> + <title>IMPORTANT</title> + <para> + Even if you are the only user on your computer (for example, + if the computer is your personal workstation), so that you are + also the system administrator, it is important that you create + a user account and use it for daily work, logging in as root + only when necessary for system maintenance. Because root can + do anything, it is easy to make mistakes that have + catastrophic consequences. Picture the root account as a + magic hat that gives you lots of power, with which you can, by + waving your hands, create or destroy entire cities. Because + it is easy to wave your hands in a destructive manner, it is + not a good idea to wear the magic hat when it is not needed, + despite the wonderful feeling. + </para> + </important> + </sect1> + <sect1 id="new-file"> + <title>Files and filenames</title> + <para> + Under most operating systems (including UNIX), there is the + concept of a <emphasis>file</emphasis>, which is just a bundle of + information given a name (called a + <emphasis>filename</emphasis>). Examples of files might be + your history term paper, an e-mail message, or an actual + program that can be executed. Essentially, anything saved on + disk is saved in an individual file. + </para> + <sect2 id="new-filenames"> + <title>Filenames</title> + <para> + Files are identified by their filenames. For example, the file + containing your conference talk might be saved with the filename + <filename>talk.txt</filename>. There is no standard format for file + names as there is under MS-DOS and some other operating systems; in + general, a filename can contain any character (except the / + character–see the discussion of path names below) and is + limited to 256 characters in length. + </para> + <important> + <title>IMPORTANT</title> + <para> + Unlike MS-DOS, the filenames in UNIX are case-sensitive: + <filename>myfile.txt</filename> and + <filename>MyFile.txt</filename> are considered as two + different files. + </para> + </important> + <para> + You should also be aware of several UNIX conventions; while they are + not mandatory, it is usually a good idea to follow them. + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> It is customary to use the format + <filename>filename.extension</filename> for filenames, + where the extension indicates the file type; for + example, the extension <filename>txt</filename> is + usually used for plain text files, while the extension + <filename>jpeg</filename> is used for graphics in JPEG + format, and so on. In particular, the <application>GNOME + File Manager</application> + (<application>Nautilus</application>) uses extensions to + determine file type. You can view or change file + extensions recognized by + <application>GNOME</application> by selecting the + section <menuchoice><guimenu>Document Handlers</guimenu> + <guimenuitem>MIME types</guimenuitem> </menuchoice> in + <application>GNOME Control Center</application>. Note + that the standard convention in UNIX is that the + <emphasis>executables</emphasis> (i.e., the program + files) have no extension at all. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> Files and directories whose names begin with a dot + (.) are usually <emphasis>configuration + files</emphasis>, that is, files which keep settings and + preferences for various applications. For example, GNOME + keeps all its settings in various files in the directories + <filename>.gnome</filename> and + <filename>.gnome-desktop</filename> in the user's home + directory. Since most of the time you do not need to + edit these files manually, or even know their precise + names and locations, <application>Nautilus</application> + usually doesn't show these files. You can change this + setting as described in <ulink type="help" + url="gnome-help:nautilus">Nautilus manual</ulink>. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> Files with names ending with tilde (~) are + usually backup files created by various + applications. For example, when you edit a file + <filename> myfile.txt</filename> with + <application>emacs</application>, it + saves the previous version in the file + <filename>myfile.txt~</filename>. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + </sect2> + <sect2 id="new-wildcards"> + <title> Wildcards</title> + + <para>When entering commands from the command line, you can use + so-called <emphasis>wildcards</emphasis> instead of an exact + filename. The most common wildcard is *, which matches any + sequence of symbols (including an empty string). For example, + the command <command>ls *.txt</command> will list all the files with + the extension <filename>txt</filename>, and the command <command>rm + chapter*</command> will remove all files with the names starting with + <filename>chapter</filename> (<command>ls</command> and + <command>rm</command> are UNIX + commands for listing and removing files). Another useful + wildcard is ?, which matches any single symbol: for example, + <command>rm chapter?.txt</command> will remove files + <filename>chapter1.txt, chapter2.txt</filename> , but not + <filename>chapter10.txt</filename> + </para> + <para>Most new GNOME users prefer using the <application>GNOME + File Manager</application> for operations with files, rather + than working from the command line. Wildcards can also be + used in <application>Nautilus</application> in the file + selection and view filter dialogs. </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="quoting"> + <title>Using spaces, commas, etc. in file names</title> + <para> + As was mentioned above, a file name may contain not only + letters and numbers, but also spaces, commas, etc. — any + characters other than slash (/). However, if you are using + commands typed on the command line, you should be careful when + dealing with such files. To avoid problems, it is advised that + you enclose filenames that contain anything other than + letters, numbers, and dots, in single quotes: to delete file + <filename>My File</filename>, you should type <command>rm 'My + File'</command> rather than <command>rm My + File</command>. + </para> + <para> + Of course, if you are only using graphical tools such as GNOME + File Manager, than you do not need to worry about this: to + delete file <filename>My File</filename>, just drag it to the + trash can. + </para> + </sect2> + + </sect1> + <sect1 id="new-dirs"> + <title>Directories and paths</title> + <sect2 id="new-dirstruct"> + <title>Directory structure</title> + <para> + Now, let's discuss the concept of directories. A + <emphasis>directory</emphasis> is a collection of files. It + can be thought of as a <quote>folder</quote> that contains + many different files. Directories are given names, with which + they can be identified. Furthermore, directories are + maintained in a tree-like structure; that is, directories may + contain other directories. The top level directory is called + the <quote>root directory</quote> and denoted by + <filename>/</filename>; it contains all the files in your + system. + </para> + <sect3 id="new-path"> + <title>Pathnames</title> + <para> + A <emphasis>pathname</emphasis> is a file's <quote>full + name</quote>; it contains not only filename but also its + location. It is made up of the filename, preceded by the + name of the directory containing that file. This, in turn, + is preceded by the name of directory containing + <emphasis>that directory</emphasis>, and so on. A typical + pathname may look like + <filename>/home/sasha/talk.txt</filename> which refers to + the file <filename>talk.txt</filename> in the directory + <filename>sasha</filename> which in turn is a subdirectory + in <filename>/home</filename>. + </para> + <para> + As you can see, the directory and filename are separated by + a single slash (/). For this reason, filenames themselves + cannot contain the / character. MS-DOS users will find this + convention familiar, although in the MS-DOS world the + backslash (\) is used instead. The directory that contains a + given subdirectory is known as the <emphasis>parent + directory</emphasis>. Here, the directory + <filename>home</filename> is the parent of the directory + <filename>sasha</filename>. + </para> + <para> + Each user has a home directory, which is the directory set aside for + that user to store his or her files. Usually, user home directories + are contained under <filename>/home</filename>, and are named for the + user owning that directory, so that the home directory of user + <systemitem>sasha</systemitem> would be + <filename>/home/sasha</filename>. + </para> + </sect3> + </sect2> + <sect2 id="new-relative"> + <title>Relative directory names</title> + <para> + At any moment, commands that you enter are assumed to be + <emphasis>relative</emphasis> to your current working + directory. You can think of your working directory as the + directory in which you are currently + <quote>located</quote>. When you first log in, your working + directory is set to your home directory — for user + sasha, it would be <filename>/home/sasha</filename>. Whenever + you refer to a file, you may refer to it in relationship to + your current working directory, rather than specifying the + full pathname of the file. + </para> + <para> + For example, if your current directory is + <filename>/home/sasha</filename>, and you have a file there called + <filename>talk.txt</filename>, you can refer to it just by its file + name: a command like <command>emacs talk.txt</command> issued from the + directory <filename>/home/sasha</filename> is equivalent to + <command>emacs /home/sasha/talk.txt</command> + (<application>emacs</application> is an extremely powerful editor for + text files; new users may prefer something simpler, such as + <application>gnotepad</application>, but for power user, + <application>emacs</application> is indispensable). + </para> + + + <para> + Similarly, if, in <filename>/home/sasha</filename> you have a + subdirectory called <filename>papers</filename> and, in that + subdirectory, a file called <filename>fieldtheory.txt</filename>, you + can refer to it as <filename>papers/fieldtheory.txt</filename>. + </para> + <para> If you begin a filename (like + <filename>papers/fieldtheory.txt</filename>) with a character + other than /, you're referring to the file in terms relative + to your current working directory. This is known as a relative + pathname. On the other hand, if you begin a filename with a + /, the system interprets this as a full pathname — that + is, a pathname that includes the entire path to the file, + starting from the root directory, /. Use of the full pathname + is known as an <emphasis>absolute pathname</emphasis>. + </para> + </sect2> + <sect2 id="new-path-conv"> + <title>Pathname conventions</title> + <para> + Here are some standard conventions you can use in paths: + </para> + <para> + <filename>~/</filename> — user's home directory + </para> + <para> + <filename>./</filename> — current working directory + </para> + <para> + <filename>../</filename> — parent of the current directory + </para> + <para> + For example, if sasha's current directory is + <filename>/home/sasha/papers</filename>, he can refer to the file + <filename>/home/sasha/talk.txt</filename> as + <filename>~/talk.txt</filename> or as <filename>../talk.txt</filename>. + </para> + </sect2> + </sect1> + <sect1 id="permissions"> + <title>Permissions</title> + <para> + Every file on your system has an <emphasis>owner</emphasis> — one + of the users (usually the one who created this file), and a system of + <emphasis>permissions</emphasis>, which regulate access to this + file. + </para> + <para> + For ordinary files, there are 3 types of access permissions: + read, write, and execute (the latter only makes sense for + executable files). They can be set independently for 3 + categories of users: the file owner, the users in the group + owning the file, and everyone else. Discussion of groups of + users goes beyond the scope of this document; the other two + categories are self-explanatory. <!--Which groups of users? I + don't think the other two categories are self-explanatory. Would + help if there was some exposition here which explicitly states + who belongs where.-->So, if the permissions on a file + <filename>/home/sasha/talk.txt</filename> are set to read and + write for user sasha, who is the file owner, and read only for + everyone else, only sasha will be able to modify this file. + <!--How about adding something in parentheses here, like (Since + sasha created the file <filename>talk.txt</filename>, sasha has + the widest range of rights to access the file.)... or something + like that?--> + </para> + + <para> + All newly created files carry some standard permissions, usually + read/write for user and read only for everyone else. You can + view the permissions using the GNOME File Manager, by + right-clicking on the file, choosing + <guimenuitem>Properties</guimenuitem> in the pop-up menu, and + then the <guilabel>Permissions</guilabel> tab. Using this + dialog, you can also change the permissions — just click + on a square representing the permission to toggle it. Of + course, only the file owner or the system administrator can + change the permissions of a file. Advanced users can also change + the default file permissions which are assigned to newly created + files—see the manual pages for your default shell (usually + <command>bash</command>, <command>csh</command> or + <command>tcsh</command>) and look for the command + <command>umask</command>. + </para> + + <para> + A file can also have some special permission properties such as + UID, GID, and <quote>sticky</quote> bit. They are for advanced + users only — do not change them unless you know what you + are doing. (If you are curious: these permissions are typically + used on executable files to allow the user to execute + <emphasis>some</emphasis> commands which read or modify files to + which the user himself doesn't have access.) + </para> + + <para> Similar to files, the directories also have + permissions. Again, there are 3 possible permissions: read, + write, and execute. However, they have different meaning: + namely, <quote>read</quote> permission for a directory means + permission to list the contents of the directory or search for a + file; <quote>write</quote> means permission to create and remove + files in the directory, and <quote>execute</quote> means + permission to access files in the directory. + </para> + <para> + Note that the permissions granted to a file depend on the + permissions of the directory in which the file is located: in + order to be able to read a file, a user needs to have the read + permission for the file itself and <quote>execute</quote> + permission for the directory that contains it. So, if user sasha + doesn't want anybody else to see his files, he can achieve this + by removing the execute permission on his home directory for all + other users. This way, no one but himself (and, of course, root) + will be able to read any of his files, no matter what the + permissions of individual files are. + </para> + <para> Detailed explanation of the permission system can be found, + for example, in the <ulink type="info" url="info:fileutils">info + page</ulink> for the GNU <citetitle>File Utilities</citetitle> + package. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="symlinks"> + <title>Symbolic links</title> + <para> + In addition to regular files, UNIX also has special files called + <emphasis>symbolic links</emphasis> (or + <emphasis>symlinks</emphasis> for short). These files do not + contain any data; instead, they are just + <quote>pointers</quote>, or <quote>shortcuts</quote> to other + files. For example, sasha can have a symlink named + <filename>ft.txt</filename> pointing to the file + <filename>papers/fieldtheory.txt</filename>; this way, when a + program tries to access the file <filename>ft.txt</filename>, + the file <filename>papers/fieldtheory.txt</filename> will be + opened instead. As you can see from this example, the symlink + and the target file can have different names and be located in + different directories. + </para> + <para> Note that deleting, moving, or renaming the symlink file + has no effect on the target file: if sasha tries to delete the + file <filename>ft.txt</filename>, it is the symlink that will + be deleted, and the file + <filename>papers/fieldtheory.txt</filename> will remain + unchanged. Also, the permissions of the symlink are + meaningless: it is the permissions of the target file that + determine whether a user has the access to it. + </para> + + <para> Symlinks can also point to directories. For example, on + the GNOME FTP server (<systemitem>ftp.gnome.org</systemitem>), + there is a file + <filename>/pub/GNOME/stable/releases/october-gnome</filename>, + which is actually a symlink to directory + <filename>/pub/GNOME/stable/releases/gnome-1.0.53</filename> + — as one would expect, since <quote>October GNOME</quote> + is just another name for 1.0.53 release + of GNOME. + </para> + </sect1> + <sect1 id="new-mount"> + <title>Mounting and unmounting drives</title> + <para> + As we mentioned earlier, the directories on a UNIX system are + organized in a tree, with the top level directory being + <filename>/</filename>. Unlike some other operating systems such as + MS-DOS, there are no special names for files on your floppy disk or + CD-ROM: <emphasis>all</emphasis> the files accessible to your system + must appear in the main directory tree starting with + <filename>/</filename>. + </para> + <para> + Thus, before you can access files on a floppy diskette or a + CD-ROM, you must give to your system a command to incorporate + the contents of this diskette into the main directory tree, + which is referred to as <emphasis>mounting</emphasis> the + diskette. You can think of it as the software analog of + connecting the drive to your system. Typically the contents of + the CD-ROM will appear under the name + <filename>/mnt/cdrom</filename>; the floppy diskette under + <filename>/mnt/floppy</filename> (these are called the + <emphasis>mount points</emphasis> and are defined in the special + configuration file, <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>). Accessing + a drive in this fashion doesn't mean that the system will copy + all the files from the CD to the directory + <filename>/mnt/cdrom</filename>. Instead, it means that the + directory <filename>/mnt/cdrom</filename> + <emphasis>represents</emphasis> the CD-ROM: When a program tries + to access, say, a file called + <filename>/mnt/cdrom/index.html</filename>, the system will look + for file <filename>index.html</filename> on the CD-ROM. + </para> + <para> + So, in short: before you can use files on a drive, you must + <quote>mount</quote> it. Similarly, <emphasis>before removing + the disk from the drive, you must unmount it.</emphasis> + </para> + <para> + When using GNOME, you usually do not have to worry about + mounting and unmounting: GNOME scans the appropriate + configuration file and places the icons for all drives on your + desktop. Double-clicking on any of these icons automatically + mounts the corresponding drive (if it was not already mounted) + and starts the file manager in the appropriate directory. + Similarly, if you right-click on the drive icon and choose the + command <guimenuitem>Eject device</guimenuitem> from the pop-up + menu, GNOME automatically unmounts it before ejecting. You can + also mount/unmount a drive by right-clicking on its icon on the + desktop and choosing <guimenuitem>Mount device</guimenuitem> or + <guimenuitem>Unmount device</guimenuitem> from the pop-up menu, + or by using the disk mount applet. + </para> + <para> + Note that you can't unmount a drive if it is being used by some + program; for example, if you have a terminal windows open in a + directory on the drive you're trying to unmount. So, if you get + the error message <quote>Device busy</quote> while trying to + unmount a drive, make sure that none of your open applications + is accessing a file or directory on this drive. + </para> + <para> + However, GNOME cannot prevent you from ejecting the disk using the + physical eject button on the drive itself — in this case, + <emphasis>it is your responsibility to unmount the drive</emphasis> + before doing so. For CD and Zip drives, the system blocks the eject + button on the drive while the drive is mounted; for floppy drives this + is technically impossible. + </para> + + <important> + <title>IMPORTANT</title> + <para> + If you eject a floppy disk using the eject button on the drive without + first unmounting it, you may lose your data! + </para> + </important> + + <para> Some systems are running special programs such as + <application>supermount</application> or + <application>magicdev</application> + which automatically mount a drive when a disk is inserted and unmount a + drive if it hasn't been used for a specified period of time. In + this case, you will probably never need to worry about + mounting/unmounting drives yourself; you don't even need to read + this section. + </para> + <para> + Allowing users to mount and unmount drives carries some security + risks, so many multi-user systems are configured so that only + root can mount or unmount drives. This is the most probable + cause of error messages you may be getting while trying to mount + a drive. In this case, discuss this matter with your system + administrator. + </para> + <para> + If the computer is your personal workstation or home computer + and you are not worried about security, you can give mount + permission to ordinary users. The easiest way to allow this is + to use the application + <application><emphasis>linuxconf</emphasis></application> (which + can only be run by root). Just select the drive you want to + access in the <guilabel>Access local drive</guilabel> section. + In the <guilabel>Options</guilabel> tab select the + <guilabel>User Mountable</guilabel> option. Your drive will now + be mountable by users. + </para> + <para> + If <application><emphasis>linuxconf</emphasis></application> is + not available, then you must manually edit the file + <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> to include user access. This is + done by adding the <quote>user</quote> attribute to the + drive. For example: + </para> + <para> + If your <filename>fstab</filename> file contains a line like + this: + </para> + <programlisting> +/dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 exec,dev,ro,noauto 0 0 + </programlisting> + <para> + add the word <quote>user</quote> to the fourth column: + </para> + <programlisting> +/dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 user,exec,dev,ro,noauto 0 0 + </programlisting> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="devices"> + <title>Drives and devices</title> + <para> + Under UNIX, the word <quote>device</quote> is used for all + peripheral devices connected to your computer; this includes + hard drives, floppy and CD-ROM drives, audio and video cards, + serial and parallel ports, and much more. Each device has a + name, such as <filename>/dev/hda</filename>. The most common + device names are listed below (for Linux; other varieties of + UNIX may use slightly different device names). + </para> + <itemizedlist> + <listitem><para> <filename>/dev/hd*</filename> (where *=a,b,c, + …): these are IDE devices, such as hard drives, + CD-ROM drives and ZIP drives. <filename>/dev/hda</filename> + denotes the master drive on the first IDE controller + (usually your first hard drive, <filename>C:</filename> + under Windows), <filename>/dev/hdb</filename> is the slave + drive on the fist controller (this can be a second hard + drive or a CD-ROM), and so on. See also the <link + linkend="zippartition">note</link> below about ZIP drives. + </para></listitem> + + <listitem><para> + <filename>/dev/sd*</filename> (where *=a,b,c, …): + these are SCSI devices, usually hard drives. + </para></listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + <note> + <title>NOTE</title> + <para>If the acronyms IDE and SCSI are new to you, here is a + brief explanation: there are two types of interfaces for hard + drives and other similar devices: IDE (and its cousins such as + EIDE, ATAPI, etc.) and SCSI. SCSI provides better performance, + but is more expensive, so it is only used on + servers. If you are not sure what kind of drives you have, most + probably it is IDE. </para> + </note> + <itemizedlist> + <listitem><para> + <filename>/dev/fd*</filename> (where *=0,1, etc) are floppy + drives; <filename>/dev/fd0</filename> is the first drive (it + corresponds to <filename>A:</filename> under Windows), + <filename>/dev/fd1</filename> is the second + (<filename>B:</filename>), etc. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem><para> + <filename>/dev/lp*</filename> (where *=0,1, etc) are + parallel ports; most commonly, these ports are used to + connect a printer to the + computer. <filename>/dev/lp0</filename> corresponds to + <filename>LPT1</filename> under Windows, + <filename>/dev/lp1</filename> to <filename>LPT2</filename>, + etc. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem><para> <filename>/dev/ttyS*</filename> (where *=0,1, + etc) are serial ports; these ports are commonly used for + connecting a mouse or a + modem. <filename>/dev/ttyS0</filename> corresponds to + <filename>COM1</filename> under Windows, + <filename>/dev/ttyS1</filename> to <filename>COM2</filename>, + etc. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem><para> + <filename>/dev/audio</filename> and + <filename>/dev/dsp</filename> — these two device + names are used for your audio card (they are not equivalent, + since they are used for different types of audio files). + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + <para> + In addition, it is a common practice to have symlinks + <filename>/dev/floppy, /dev/modem</filename> and + <filename>/dev/cdrom</filename> pointing to the actual device + name corresponding to your floppy drive, modem, and CD-ROM drive + respectively. + </para> + <para> + You rarely need to use these device names. In particular, if you + want to access a file on a drive, you do not use the device name + (such as <filename>/dev/fd0</filename>); instead, you first + mount the device so that its contents shows as a subdirectory + (for example, <filename>/mnt/floppy</filename>) in the main + directory tree, and then use this directory for accessing + files; see <xref linkend="new-mount"> for more information. About + the only time when you actually need to use the device names is + when you are configuring some newly installed program. For + example, a fax program can ask you for the device name for your + modem (in which case you can either give it the actual device + name, such as <filename>/dev/ttyS1</filename>, or just use the + symlink <filename>/dev/modem</filename>). + </para> + <para> And just for fun: there is also a device + <filename>/dev/null</filename> which acts as a <quote>black + hole</quote>: you can send to it any information, and it never + returns. So if you do not want to be bothered by error messages, + re-direct them to <filename>/dev/null</filename> -:). + </para> + + <sect2 id="partitions"> + <title>Partitions</title> + <para> + Note that it is possible to subdivide a hard drive (or a + similar device) into parts which for all practical purposes + behave as independent disks, even though physically they + reside on the same disk. These parts are called + <quote>partitions</quote> (under Windows, the name + <quote>logical disk</quote> is used). For example, you can + partition your hard drive into several partitions, and install + different operating systems in different partitions; you can + reformat each partition independently of the others. This + partitioning of the hard drive is usually done during the + installation of the operating system; refer to your + installation guide for more information. + </para> + <para> + If your hard drive has been partitioned then each partition + is considered as a separate device. For example, if your hard + drive is <filename>/dev/hda</filename>, then the first + partition on this drive would be referred to as + <filename>/dev/hda1</filename>, the second as + <filename>/dev/hda2</filename>, and so on. + </para> + <warning id="zippartition"> + <title> Partitioning of ZIP disks</title> + + <para> For reasons unknown to us, the pre-formatted + ZIP disks sold in stores or formatted using Iomega's ZIP + tools under Windows are partitioned in a strange way: + they have only one partition (of Windows type, of course), + but this partition has number 4. Thus, if your ZIP drive is + <filename>/dev/hdc</filename>, the correct device name you + should use for such disks is <filename>/dev/hdc4</filename>. + </para> + </warning> + </sect2> + </sect1> + <sect1 id="X11"> + <title>Graphical user interface: X Window System, window + managers, and desktop environments.</title> + <para> + UNIX is a modular system: it consists of many components so that + a user (or system administrator) can choose those components he + needs. In particular, there are several layers of software + responsible for graphical user interface. These layers are: X + Window System, window managers, and desktop environment. + </para> + <para> <emphasis>X Window System</emphasis> (also known as X, or + X11) is the component of UNIX systems responsible for virtually + all basic graphics — in particular, for drawing icons, + backgrounds, and windows in which your applications + work. Without X, you only have command line. X11 sets the screen + resolution and color depth, moves the mouse cursor around the + screen, etc. It serves as a foundation for other components of + graphical user interface such as window managers and desktop + environments. + </para> + <para> <emphasis>Window manager</emphasis> extends capabilities of + X Window System by placing borders and buttons around windows, + which allows the user to move, close, hide or resize the + windows. X11 is virtually always used in combination with a + window manager, since it would be pretty much unusable without + one. There are many window managers available for X11; most + popular are <application>fvwm</application>, + <application>mwm</application>, <application>kwm</application> + (used by KDE), <application>Enlightenment</application>, and + <application>Sawfish</application>. + </para> + <para> Finally, a <emphasis>desktop environment</emphasis> goes + one more step further than a window manager by adding a + graphical file manager from which you can drag-and-drop items on + your desktop, a panel which can be used to launch frequently + used applications, and a set of applications and utilities. + There are several desktop environments available for all + versions of UNIX; the most popular ones are <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.gnome.org">GNOME</ulink>, <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.kde.org">KDE</ulink> and <ulink type="http" + url="http://www.sun.com/solaris/cde/">CDE</ulink> (soon to be + replaced by GNOME). + </para> + <para> Most desktop environments contain a window manager as their + integral part; for example, KDE contains its own window manager, + <application>kwm</application> (it is possible to use KDE with + another window manager, but few people do so). GNOME has no + window manager of its own; it will allow you to choose any + window manager you already have on your system. To make life + easier for new users, usually the + <application>Sawfish</application> window manager is distributed + with GNOME and is used by default; you can switch to + another window manager using <application>GNOME Control + Center</application>. Note however that you will need a + GNOME-compliant window manager to use such features of GNOME as + session management, taskbar applet, etc. + </para> + + </sect1> + + +</article> + + + |