doc/tutorial.tex


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<
int phys2log(int phys, int stripe, int n, int layout)
{
    /* In an 'n' disk array using 'layout',
     * in stripe 'stripe', the physical disc 'phys'
     * stores what logical chunk?
     * -1 mean parity.
     *
     */
    switch(layout) {
    case ALGORITHM_LEFT_ASYMMETRIC:
	pd = (n-1) - (stripe % n);
	if (phys < pd)
	    return phys;
	else if (phys == pd)
	    return -1;
	else return phys-1;

    case ALGORITHM_RIGHT_ASYMMETRIC:
	pd = stripe % n;
	if (phys < pd)
	    return phys;
	else if (phys == pd)
	    return -1;
	else return phys-1;

    case ALGORITHM_LEFT_SYMMETRIC:
	pd = (n-1) - (stripe %n);
	if (phys < pd)
	    return phys+ n-1-pd;
	else if (phys == pd)
	    return -1;
	else return phys-pd-1;

    case ALGORITHM_RIGHT_SYMMETRIC:
	pd = stripe % n;
	if (phys < pd)
	    return phys+ n-1-pd;
	else if (phys == pd)
	    return -1;
	else return phys-pd-1;
    }
    return -2;
}

raid5_extend(unsigned long len, int chunksize, int layout, int n, int m, int rfds[], int wfds[])
{

    static char buf[4096];

    unsigned long blocks = len/4;
    unsigned int blocksperchunk= chunksize/4096;

    unsigned long b;
    
    for (b=0; b<blocks; b++) {
	unsigned long stripe = b / blocksperchunk;
	unsigned int offset = b - (stripe*blocksperchunk);
	unsigned long chunk = stripe * (n-1);
	int src;
	for (src=0; src<n; src++) {
	    int dnum, snum;
	    if (read(rfds[src], buf, sizeof(buf)) != sizeof(buf)) {
		error();
		return 0;
	    }

	    snum = phys2log(src, stripe, n, layout);

	    if (snum == -1)
		continue;
	    chunk = stripe*(n-1)+snum;

	    dstripe = chunk/(m-1);
	    dnum = log2phys(chunk-(stripe*(m-1)), dstripe, m, layout);
	    llseek(wfds[dnum], dstripe*chunksize+(offset*4096), 0);
	    write(wfds[dnum], buf, sizeof(buf));
	}
    }
}
% Copyright (C) 2005-2007 Red Hat Inc.
% This file is part of systemtap, and is free software.  You can
% redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General
% Public License (GPL); either version 2, or (at your option) any
% later version.

\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{html}
\usepackage{graphicx}
% \usepackage{moreverb}
\usepackage{fancyvrb}
\usepackage{listings}
\usepackage{fullpage}
\usepackage{fancybox}
\usepackage[compatible]{nomencl}
% \usepackage{geometry}
% \geometry{letterpaper,text={7in,8.5in}}
\usepackage{charter}

\newenvironment{boxedminipage}%% Boxed minipage
    {\begin{makeimage}\begin{center}\begin{Sbox}\begin{minipage}}%
    {\end{minipage}\end{Sbox}\fbox{\TheSbox}\end{center}\end{makeimage}}

\begin{htmlonly}
\renewcommand{\nomenclature}[2]{}
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% \usepackage{draftcopy} % ugly
\bibliographystyle{plain}
\makeglossary
\parindent0.0cm
\parskip0.2cm

\begin{document}

\begin{center}
\LARGE {\bf Systemtap tutorial}
\end{center}

\hfill \begin{minipage}{2.5in}
% contributors please add your names to the list
Frank Ch. Eigler {\tt \small <fche@redhat.com>} \\
\hfill \today
\end{minipage}

\tableofcontents

\section{Introduction}

Systemtap is a tool that allows developers and administrators to write
and reuse simple scripts to deeply examine the activities of a live
Linux system.  Data may be extracted, filtered, and summarized quickly
and safely, to enable diagnoses of complex performance or functional
problems.

\nomenclature{script}{A simple programming language understood by systemtap.}

The essential idea behind a systemtap script is to name {\em events},
and to give them {\em handlers}.  Whenever a specified event occurs,
the Linux kernel runs the handler as if it were a quick subroutine,
then resumes.  There are several kind of events, such as entering or
exiting a function, a timer expiring, or the entire systemtap session
starting or stopping.  A handler is a series of script language
statements that specify the work to be done whenever the event occurs.
This work normally includes extracting data from the event context,
storing them into internal variables, or printing results.

\nomenclature{event}{An identifiable instant in the operating system's
execution state, such as entry to a function, or expiry of a timer.}
\nomenclature{session}{A complete run of a systemtap script program.}
\nomenclature{handler}{A series of statements, written in script, which
is to be performed whenever an event occurs.}
\nomenclature{\tt .stp}{The standard file name extension for systemtap
scripts.}

Systemtap works by translating the script to C, running the system C
compiler to create a kernel module from that.  When the module is
loaded, it activates all the probed events by hooking into the kernel.
Then, as events occur on any processor, the compiled handlers run.
Eventually, the session stops, the hooks are disconnected, and the
module removed.  This entire process is driven from a single
command-line program, \verb+stap+.

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat hello-world.stp
probe begin 
{
  print ("hello world\n")
  exit ()
}

# stap hello-world.stp
hello world
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\label{fig:hello-world}
\caption{A systemtap smoke test.}
\end{figure}

This paper assumes that you have installed systemtap and its
prerequisite kernel development tools and debugging data, so that you
can run the scripts such as the simple one in
Figure~\ref{fig:hello-world}.  Log on as \verb+root+, or even better,
as a user authorized to \verb+sudo+, before running systemtap.

\begin{figure}[ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat strace-open.stp
probe syscall.open
{
  printf ("%s(%d) open (%s)\n", execname(), pid(), argstr) 
}
probe timer.ms(4000) # after 4 seconds
{
  exit ()
}

# stap strace-open.stp
vmware-guestd(2206) open ("/etc/redhat-release", O_RDONLY)
hald(2360) open ("/dev/hdc", O_RDONLY|O_EXCL|O_NONBLOCK)
hald(2360) open ("/dev/hdc", O_RDONLY|O_EXCL|O_NONBLOCK)
hald(2360) open ("/dev/hdc", O_RDONLY|O_EXCL|O_NONBLOCK)
df(3433) open ("/etc/ld.so.cache", O_RDONLY)
df(3433) open ("/lib/tls/libc.so.6", O_RDONLY)
df(3433) open ("/etc/mtab", O_RDONLY)
hald(2360) open ("/dev/hdc", O_RDONLY|O_EXCL|O_NONBLOCK)
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\label{fig:strace-open}
\caption{A taste of systemtap: a system-wide {\tt strace}, just for
the {\tt open} system call.}
\end{figure}
\nomenclature{strace}{A standard ptrace-based command line tool to trace system call activity of a process.}

\section{Tracing}

The simplest kind of probe is simply to {\em trace} an event.
\nomenclature{trace}{A compact textual record of an event occurrence.}
This is the effect of inserting strategically located \verb+print+
statements into a program.  This is often the first step of problem
solving: explore by seeing a history of what has happened.

This style of instrumentation is the simplest.  It just asks systemtap
to print something at each event.  To express this in the script
language, you need to say where to probe and what to print there.

\subsection{Where to probe}

Systemtap supports a number of built-in events.  The library of
scripts that comes with systemtap, each called a ``tapset'', may
define additional ones defined in terms of the built-in family.  See
the \verb+stapprobes+ man page for details.  \nomenclature{tapset}{A
reusable script forming part of the automatically searched tapset
library.}  All these events are named using a unified syntax that
looks like dot-separated parameterized identifiers:

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb+begin+ & The startup of the systemtap session. \\
\verb+end+ & The end of the systemtap session. \\
\verb+kernel.function("sys_open")+ & The entry to the function named
\verb+sys_open+ in the kernel. \\
\verb+syscall.close.return+ & The return from the \verb+close+ system
call. \\
\verb+module("ext3").statement(0xdeadbeef)+ & The addressed instruction
in the \verb+ext3+ filesystem driver. \\
\verb+timer.ms(200)+ & A timer that fires every 200 milliseconds. \\
\end{tabular}

Let's say that you would like to trace all function entries and exits
in a source file, say \verb+net/socket.c+ in the kernel.  The
\verb+kernel.function+ probe point lets you express that easily, since
systemtap examines the kernel's debugging information to relate object
code to source code.  It works like a debugger: if you can name or
place it, you can probe it.  Use
\verb+kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").call+ for the function
entries\footnote{Without the {\tt .call} qualifier, inlined function
instances are also probed, but they have no corresponding {\tt .return}.},
and \verb+kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").return+ for matching exits.  Note
the use of wildcards in the function name part, and the subsequent
\verb+@FILENAME+ part.  You can also put wildcards into the file name,
and even add a colon (\verb+:+) and a line number, if you want to
restrict the search that precisely.  Since systemtap will put a
separate probe in every place that matches a probe point, a few
wildcards can expand to hundreds or thousands of probes, so be careful
what you ask for.  \nomenclature{debug information}{Data created by the
compiler when the kernel or application was built, sometimes packaged into
{\tt debuginfo} files, for use by a symbolic debugger.}
\nomenclature{wildcard}{Presence of \verb+*+ globbing patterns in probe points.}

Once you identify the probe points, the skeleton of the systemtap
script appears.  The \verb+probe+ keyword introduces a probe point, or
a comma-separated list of them.  The following \verb+{+ and \verb+}+
braces enclose the handler for all listed probe points.
\begin{verbatim}
probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c") { }
probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").return { }
\end{verbatim}
You can run this script as is, though with empty handlers there will
be no output.  Put the two lines into a new file.  Run
\verb+stap -v FILE+.  Terminate it any time with \verb+^C+.  (The
\verb+-v+ option tells systemtap to print more verbose messages during
its processing.  Try the \verb+-h+ option to see more options.)

\subsection{What to print}

Since you are interested in each function that was entered and exited,
a line should be printed for each, containing the function name.  In
order to make that list easy to read, systemtap should indent the
lines so that functions called by other traced functions are nested
deeper.  To tell each single process apart from any others that may be
running concurrently, systemtap should also print the process ID in
the line.

Systemtap provides a variety of such contextual data, ready for
formatting.  They usually appear as function calls within the handler,
like you already saw in Figure~\ref{fig:strace-open}.  See the
\verb+stapfuncs+ man page for those functions and more defined in the
tapset library, but here's a sampling:

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb+tid()+ & The id of the current thread. \\
\verb+pid()+ & The process (task group) id of the current thread. \\
\verb+uid()+ & The id of the current user. \\
\verb+execname()+ & The name of the current process. \\
\verb+cpu()+ & The current cpu number. \\
\verb+gettimeofday_s()+ & Number of seconds since epoch. \\
\verb+get_cycles()+ & Snapshot of hardware cycle counter. \\
\verb+pp()+ & A string describing the probe point being currently handled. \\
\verb+probefunc()+ & If known, the name of the function in which
                     this probe was placed. \\
\end{tabular}

The values returned may be strings or numbers.  The \verb+print()+
built-in function accepts either as its sole argument.  Or, you can
use the C-style \verb+printf()+ built-in, whose formatting argument
may include \verb+%s+ for a string, \verb+%d+ for a number.
\verb+printf+ and other functions take comma-separated arguments.
Don't forget a \verb+"\n"+ at the end.

A particularly handy function in the tapset library is
\verb+thread_indent+.  Given an indentation delta parameter, it stores
internally an indentation counter for each thread (\verb+tid()+), and
returns a string with some generic trace data plus an appropriate
number of indentation spaces.  That generic data includes a timestamp
(number of microseconds since the most recent initial indentation), a
process name and the thread id itself.  It therefore gives an idea not
only about what functions were called, but who called them, and how
long they took.  Figure~\ref{fig:socket-trace} shows the finished
script.  It lacks a call to the \verb+exit()+ function, so you need to
interrupt it with \verb+^C+ when you want the tracing to stop.

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat socket-trace.stp
probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c") {
  printf ("%s -> %s\n", thread_indent(1), probefunc())
}
probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").return {
  printf ("%s <- %s\n", thread_indent(-1), probefunc())
}

# stap socket-trace.stp
     0 hald(2632): -> sock_poll
    28 hald(2632): <- sock_poll
[...]
     0 ftp(7223): -> sys_socketcall
  1159 ftp(7223):  -> sys_socket
  2173 ftp(7223):   -> __sock_create
  2286 ftp(7223):    -> sock_alloc_inode
  2737 ftp(7223):    <- sock_alloc_inode
  3349 ftp(7223):    -> sock_alloc
  3389 ftp(7223):    <- sock_alloc
  3417 ftp(7223):   <- __sock_create
  4117 ftp(7223):   -> sock_create
  4160 ftp(7223):   <- sock_create
  4301 ftp(7223):   -> sock_map_fd
  4644 ftp(7223):    -> sock_map_file
  4699 ftp(7223):    <- sock_map_file
  4715 ftp(7223):   <- sock_map_fd
  4732 ftp(7223):  <- sys_socket
  4775 ftp(7223): <- sys_socketcall
[...]
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Tracing and timing functions in {\tt net/sockets.c}.}
\label{fig:socket-trace}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Exercises}

\begin{enumerate}
\item Use the \verb+-p2+ option to systemtap to list all the kernel
functions named with the word ``nit'' in them.  The probe handlers
might as well be empty.

\item Trace some system calls (use \verb+syscall.NAME+ and \verb+.return+
probe points), with the same \verb+thread_indent+ probe handler as in
Figure~\ref{fig:socket-trace}.  Interpret the results.

\end{enumerate}

\section{Analysis}

Pages of generic tracing text may give you enough information for
exploring a system.  With systemtap, it is possible to analyze that
data, to filter, aggregate, transform, and summarize it.  Different
probes can work together to share data.  Probe handlers can use a rich
set of control constructs to describe algorithms, with a syntax taken
roughly from \verb+awk+.  With these tools, systemtap scripts can
focus on a specific question and provide a compact response: no
\verb+grep+ needed.
\nomenclature{awk}{A classic UNIX stream processing language.}

\subsection{Basic constructs}

Most systemtap scripts include conditionals, to limit tracing or other
logic to those processes or users or {\em whatever} of interest.  The
syntax is simple:

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb+if (+{\em EXPR}\verb+)+ {\em STATEMENT} [\verb+else+ {\em STATEMENT}\verb+]+ & if/else statement \\
\verb+while (+{\em EXPR}\verb+)+ {\em STATEMENT} & while loop \\
\verb+for (+{\em A}\verb+;+ {\em B}\verb+;+ {\em C}\verb+)+ {\em STATEMENT} & for loop \\
\end{tabular}

Scripts may use \verb+break+/\verb+continue+ as in C.
Probe handlers can return early using \verb+next+ as in \verb+awk+.
Blocks of statements are enclosed in \verb+{+ and \verb+}+.  In
systemtap, the semicolon (\verb+;+) is accepted as a null statement
rather than as a statement terminator, so is only rarely\footnote{Use
them between consecutive expressions that place unary {\tt +},{\tt -}
or mixed pre/post {\tt ++},{\tt --} in an ambiguous manner.}
necessary.  Shell-style (\verb+#+), C-style (\verb+/* */+), and
C++-style (\verb+//+) comments are all accepted.

Expressions look like C or \verb+awk+, and support the usual
operators, precedences, and numeric literals.  Strings are treated as
atomic values rather than arrays of characters.  String concatenation
is done with the dot (\verb+"a" . "b"+).  Some examples:

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb+(uid() > 100)+ & probably an ordinary user \\
\verb+(execname() == "sed")+ & current process is sed \\
\verb+(cpu() == 0 && gettimeofday_s() > 1140498000)+ & after Feb. 21, 2006, on CPU 0 \\
\verb+"hello" . " " . "world"+ & a string in three easy pieces \\
\end{tabular}

Variables may be used as well.  Just pick a name, assign to it, and
use it in expressions.  They are automatically initialized and
declared.  The type of each identifier -- string vs. number -- is
automatically inferred by systemtap from the kinds of operators and
literals used on it.  Any inconsistencies will be reported as errors.
Conversion between string and number types is done through explicit
function calls.

\nomenclature{type}{A designation of each identifier such as a
variable, or function, or array value or index, as containing a string
or number.}  \nomenclature{string}{A \verb+\0+-terminated character
string of up to a fixed limit in length.}  \nomenclature{number}{A
64-bit signed integer.}  \nomenclature{type inference}{The automatic
determination of the type of each variable, function parameter, array
value and index, based on their use.}

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb+foo = gettimeofday_s()+ & foo is a number \\
\verb+bar = "/usr/bin/" . execname()+ & bar is a string \\
\verb|c++| & c is a number \\
\verb+s = sprint(2345)+ & s becomes the string "2345" \\
\end{tabular}

By default, variables are local to the probe they are used in.  That
is, they are initialized, used, and disposed of at each probe handler
invocation.  To share variables between probes, declare them global
anywhere in the script.  Because of possible concurrency (multiple
probe handlers running on different CPUs), each global variable used
by a probe is automatically read- or write-locked while the handler is
running.  \nomenclature{global variable}{A scalar, array, or aggregate that was
named in a \verb+global+ declaration, sharing that object amongst all
probe handlers and functions executed during a systemtap session.}
\nomenclature{locking}{An automated facility used by systemtap to
protect global variables against concurrent modification and/or
access.}

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat timer-jiffies.stp
global count_jiffies, count_ms
probe timer.jiffies(100) { count_jiffies ++ }
probe timer.ms(100) { count_ms ++ }
probe timer.ms(12345) 
{
  hz=(1000*count_jiffies) / count_ms
  printf ("jiffies:ms ratio %d:%d => CONFIG_HZ=%d\n",
    count_jiffies, count_ms, hz)
  exit ()
}

# stap timer-jiffies.stp
jiffies:ms ratio 30:123 => CONFIG_HZ=243
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Experimentally measuring {\tt CONFIG\_HZ}.}
\label{fig:timer-jiffies}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Target variables}

A class of special ``target variables'' allow access to the probe
point context.  \nomenclature{target variable}{A value that may be
extracted from the kernel context of the probe point, such as a
parameter or local variable within a probed function.}  In a symbolic
debugger, when you're stopped at a breakpoint, you can print values
from the program's context.  In systemtap scripts, for those probe
points that match with specific executable point (rather than an
asynchronous event like a timer), you can do the same.  To know which
variables are likely to be available, you will need to be familiar
with the kernel source you are probing.  In addition, you will need to
check that the compiler has not optimized those values into
unreachable nonexistence.

Let's say that you are trying to trace filesystem reads/writes to a
particular device/inode.  From your knowledge of the kernel, you know
that two functions of interest could be \verb+vfs_read+ and
\verb+vfs_write+.  Each takes a \verb+struct file *+ argument, inside
which there is a \verb+struct dentry *+, a \verb+struct inode *+, and
so on.  Systemtap allows limited dereferencing of such pointer chains.
Two functions, \verb+user_string+ and \verb+kernel_string+, can copy
\verb+char *+ target variables into systemtap strings.
Figure~\ref{fig:inode-watch} demonstrates one way to monitor a
particular file (identifed by device number and inode number).  This
example also demonstrates pasting numeric command-line arguments
(\verb+$1+ etc.) into scripts.
%$

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat inode-watch.stp
probe kernel.function ("vfs_write"),
      kernel.function ("vfs_read")
{
  dev_nr = $file->f_dentry->d_inode->i_sb->s_dev
  inode_nr = $file->f_dentry->d_inode->i_ino

  if (dev_nr == ($1 << 20 | $2) # major/minor device
      && inode_nr == $3)
    printf ("%s(%d) %s 0x%x/%u\n",
      execname(), pid(), probefunc(), dev_nr, inode_nr)
}
# stat -c '%D %i' /etc/crontab
803 988136
# stap inode-watch.stp 8 3 988136
crond(2419) vfs_read 0x800003/988136
crond(2419) vfs_read 0x800003/988136
crond(2419) vfs_read 0x800003/988136
\end{verbatim}
% $
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Watching for reads/writes to a particular file.}
\label{fig:inode-watch}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Functions}

Functions are conveniently packaged reusable software: it would be a
shame to have to duplicate a complex condition expression or logging
directive in every placed it's used.  So, systemtap lets you define
functions of your own.  Like global variables, systemtap functions may
be defined anywhere in the script.  They may take any number of string
or numeric arguments (by value), and may return a single string or
number.  The parameter types are inferred as for ordinary variables,
and must be consistent throughout the program.  Local and global
script variables are available, but target variables are {\em not}.
That's because there is no specific debugging-level context associated
with a function.
\nomenclature{function}{A clump of parametrized script statements that
may be repeatedly and recursively called from probe handlers and other
functions.}

A function is defined with the keyword \verb+function+ followed by a
name.  Then comes a comma-separated formal argument list (just a list
of variable names).  The \verb+{ }+-enclosed body consists of any list
of statements, including expressions that call functions.  Recursion
is possible, up to a nesting depth limit.  Figure~\ref{fig:functions}
displays function syntax.


\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# Red Hat convention
function system_uid_p (u) { return u < 500 }

# kernel device number assembly macro
function makedev (major,minor) { return major << 20 | minor }

function trace_common ()
{
  printf("%d %s(%d)", gettimeofday_s(), execname(), pid())
  # no return value necessary
} 

function fibonacci (i)
{
  if (i < 1) return 0
  else if (i < 2) return 1
  else return fibonacci(i-1) + fibonacci(i-2)
}
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Some functions of dubious utility.}
\label{fig:functions}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Arrays}

Often, probes will want to share data that cannot be represented as a
simple scalar value.  Much data is naturally tabular in nature,
indexed by some tuple of thread numbers, processor ids, names, time,
and so on.  Systemtap offers associative arrays for this purpose.
These arrays are implemented as hash tables with a maximum size that
is fixed at startup.  Because they are too large to be created
dynamically for inidividual probes handler runs, they must be declared
as global.  \nomenclature{array}{A global
\verb+[+$k_1,k_2,\ldots,k_n\verb+]+\rightarrow value$
associative lookup table, with a string,
number for each index; the value may be a string, number, or an aggregate.}

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb|global a| & declare global scalar or array variable \\
\verb|global b[400]| & declare array, reserving space for up to 400 tuples \\
\end{tabular}

The basic operations for arrays are setting and looking up elements.
These are expressed in \verb+awk+ syntax: the array name followed by
an opening \verb+[+ bracket, a comma-separated list of index
expressions, and a closing \verb+]+ bracket.  Each index expression
may be string or numeric, as long as it is consistently typed
throughout the script.
\nomenclature{arity}{Number of indexes to an array, or number of parameters
to a function.}

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb|foo [4,"hello"] ++ | & increment the named array slot \\
\verb|processusage [uid(),execname()] ++| & update a statistic \\
\verb|times [tid()] = get_cycles()| & set a timestamp reference point \\
\verb|delta = get_cycles() - times [tid()]| & compute a timestamp delta \\
\end{tabular}

Array elements that have not been set {\em may} be fetched, and return
a dummy null value (zero or an empty string) as appropriate.  However,
assigning a null value does not delete the element: an explicit
\verb|delete| statement is required.  \nomenclature{null value}{A
default initialized value for globals and array elements: a zero or an
empty string, depending on type.}  Systemtap provides syntactic sugar
for these operations, in the form of explicit membership testing and
deletion.

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb|if ([4,"hello"] in foo) { }| & membership test \\
\verb|delete times[tid()]| & deletion of a single element \\
\verb|delete times| & deletion of all elements \\
\end{tabular}

One final and important operation is iteration over arrays.  This uses
the keyword \verb+foreach+.  Like \verb+awk+, this creates a loop that
{\em iterates over key tuples} of an array, not just {\em values}.  In
addition, the iteration may be {\em sorted} by any single key or the
value by adding an extra \verb|+| or \verb|-| code.

The \verb+break+ and \verb+continue+ statements work inside
\verb+foreach+ loops, too.  Since arrays can be large but probe
handlers must not run for long, it is a good idea to exit iteration
early if possible.  The \verb+limit+ option in the \verb+foreach+
expression is one way.  For simplicity, systemtap forbids any {\em
modification} of an array while it is being iterated using a
\verb+foreach+.

\begin{tabular}{rp{0.4\textwidth}}
\verb|foreach ([a,b] in foo) { fuss_with(foo[a,b]) }| & simple loop in arbitrary sequence \\
\verb|foreach ([a,b] in foo+ limit 5) { }| & loop in increasing sequence of value, stop after 5 \\
\verb|foreach ([a-,b] in foo) { }| & loop in decreasing sequence of first key \\
\end{tabular}

\subsection{Aggregates}

When we said above that values can only be strings or numbers, we lied
a little.  There is a third type: statistics aggregates, or aggregates
for short.  Instances of this type are used to collect statistics on
numerical values, where it is important to accumulate new data quickly
({\em without} exclusive locks) and in large volume (storing only
aggregated stream statistics).  This type only makes sense for global
variables, and may be stored individually or as elements of an array.
\nomenclature{aggregate}{A special ``write-mostly'' data type used to
efficiently store aggregated statistical values of a potentially huge
data stream.}

To add a value to a statistics aggregate, systemtap uses the special
operator \verb+<<<+.  Think of it like C++'s \verb+<<+ output
streamer: the left hand side object accumulates the data sample given
on the right hand side.  This operation is efficient (taking a shared
lock) because the aggregate values are kept separately on each
processor, and are only aggregated across processors on request.

\begin{verbatim}
a <<< delta_timestamp
writes[execname()] <<< count
\end{verbatim}

To read the aggregate value, special functions are available to
extract a selected statistical function. {\em The aggregate value
cannot be read by simply naming it as if it were an ordinary
variable.}  These operations take an exclusive lock on the respective
globals, and should therefore be relatively rare.  The simple ones
are: \verb+@min+, \verb+@max+, \verb+@count+, \verb+@avg+, and
\verb+@sum+, and evaluate to a single number.  In addition, histograms
of the data stream may be extracted using the \verb+@hist_log+ and
\verb+@hist_linear+.  These evaluate to a special sort of array that
may at present\footnote{We anticipate support for indexing and looping
using {\tt foreach} shortly.} only be printed.
\nomenclature{extractor}{A function-like expression in a script that
computes a single statistic for a given aggregate.}

\begin{tabular}{rp{0.5\textwidth}}
\verb+@avg(a)+ & the average of all the values accumulated
                        into \verb+a+ \\
\verb+print(@hist_linear(a,0,100,10))+ & print an ``ascii art'' linear
                  histogram of the same data stream,
     bounds $0 \ldots 100$, bucket width is $10$ \\
\verb|@count(writes["zsh"])| & the number of times ``zsh''
                ran the probe handler \\
\verb+print(@hist_log(writes["zsh"]))+ & print an ``ascii art'' logarithmic
                  histogram of the same data stream \\
\end{tabular}

\subsection{Safety}
\label{sec:safety}

The full expressivity of the scripting language raises good questions
of safety.  Here is a set of Q\&A:

\begin{description}
\item{\bf What about infinite loops?  recursion?} A probe handler is
bounded in time.  The C code generated by systemtap includes explicit
checks that limit the total number of statements executed to a small
number.  A similar limit is imposed on the nesting depth of function
calls.  When either limit is exceeded, that probe handler cleanly
aborts and signals an error.  The systemtap session is normally
configured to abort as a whole at that time.

\item{\bf What about running out of memory?}  No dynamic memory
allocation whatsoever takes place during the execution of probe
handlers.  Arrays, function contexts, and buffers are allocated during
initialization.  These resources may run out during a session, and
generally result in errors.

\item{\bf What about locking?}  If multiple probes seek conflicting
locks on the same global variables, one or more of them will time out,
and be aborted.  Such events are tallied as ``skipped'' probes, and a
count is displayed at session end.  A configurable number of skipped
probes can trigger an abort of the session.

\item{\bf What about null pointers? division by zero?}  The C code
generated by systemtap translates potentially dangerous operations to
routines that check their arguments at run time.  These signal errors
if they are invalid.  Many arithmetic and string operations silently
overflow if the results exceed representation limits.

\item{\bf What about bugs in the translator?  compiler?}  While bugs
in the translator, or the runtime layer certainly exist\footnote{See
\tt http://sources.redhat.com/bugzilla}, our test suite gives some
assurance.  Plus, the entire generated C code may be inspected (try
the \verb+-p3+ option).  Compiler bugs are unlikely to be of any
greater concern for systemtap than for the kernel as a whole.  In
other words, if it was reliable enough to build the kernel, it will
build the systemtap modules properly too.

\item{\bf Is that the whole truth?}  In practice, there are several
weak points in systemtap and the underlying kprobes system at the time
of writing.  Putting probes indiscriminately into unusually sensitive
parts of the kernel (low level context switching, interrupt
dispatching) has reportedly caused crashes in the past.  We are
fixing these bugs as they are found, and
constructing a probe point ``blacklist'', but it is not complete.
\nomenclature{blacklist}{A list of probe point patterns encoded into
the translator or the kernel, where probing is prohibited for safety
reasons.}  \nomenclature{kprobes}{A breakpoint dispatching system for
dynamic kernel probes, used by systemtap to implement some families of
probe points.}

\end{description}


\subsection{Exercises}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Alter the last probe in \verb+timer-jiffies.stp+ to reset the
counters and continue reporting instead of exiting.

\item Write a script that, every ten seconds, displays the top five
most frequent users of \verb+open+ system call during that interval.

\item Write a script that experimentally measures the speed of the
\verb+get_cycles()+ counter on each processor.

\item Use any suitable probe point to get an approximate profile of
process CPU usage: which processes/users use how much of each CPU.
\end{enumerate}

\section{Tapsets}

After writing enough analysis scripts for yourself, your may become
known as an expert to your colleagues, who will want to use your
scripts.  Systemtap makes it possible to share in a controlled manner;
to build libraries of scripts that build on each other.  In fact, all
of the functions (\verb+pid()+, etc.) used in the scripts above come
from tapset scripts like that.  A ``tapset'' is just a script that
designed for reuse by installation into a special directory.

\subsection{Automatic selection}

Systemtap attempts to resolve references to global symbols (probes,
functions, variables) that are not defined within the script by a
systematic search through the tapset library for scripts that define
those symbols.  Tapset scripts are installed under the default
directory named \verb+/usr/share/systemtap/tapset+.  A user may give
additional directories with the \verb+-I DIR+ option.  Systemtap
searches these directories for script (\verb+.stp+) files.

The search process includes subdirectories that are specialized for a
particular kernel version and/or architecture, and ones that name only
larger kernel families.  Naturally, the search is ordered from
specific to general, as shown in Figure~\ref{fig:tapset-search}.
\nomenclature{tapset search path}{A list of subdirectories searched by
systemtap for tapset scripts, allowing specialization by version
architecture.}

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{6in}
\begin{verbatim}
# stap -p1 -vv -e 'probe begin { }' > /dev/null
Created temporary directory "/tmp/staplnEBh7"
Searched '/usr/share/systemtap/tapset/2.6.15/i686/*.stp', match count 0
Searched '/usr/share/systemtap/tapset/2.6.15/*.stp', match count 0
Searched '/usr/share/systemtap/tapset/2.6/i686/*.stp', match count 0
Searched '/usr/share/systemtap/tapset/2.6/*.stp', match count 0
Searched '/usr/share/systemtap/tapset/i686/*.stp', match count 1
Searched '/usr/share/systemtap/tapset/*.stp', match count 12
Pass 1: parsed user script and 13 library script(s) in 350usr/10sys/375real ms.
Running rm -rf /tmp/staplnEBh7
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Listing the tapset search path.}
\label{fig:tapset-search}
\end{figure}

When a script file is found that {\em defines} one of the undefined
symbols, that {\em entire file} is added to the probing session being
analyzed.  This search is repeated until no more references can become
satisfied.  Systemtap signals an error if any are still unresolved.

This mechanism enables several programming idioms.  First, it allows
some global symbols to be defined only for applicable kernel
version/architecture pairs, and cause an error if their use is
attempted on an inapplicable host.  Similarly, the same symbol can be
defined differently depending on kernels, in much the same way that
different kernel \verb+include/asm/ARCH/+ files contain macros that
provide a porting layer.

Another use is to separate the default parameters of a tapset routine
from its implementation.  For example, consider a tapset that defines
code for relating elapsed time intervals to process scheduling
activities.  The data collection code can be generic with respect to
which time unit (jiffies, wall-clock seconds, cycle counts) it can
use.  It should have a default, but should not require additional
run-time checks to let a user choose another.
Figure~\ref{fig:tapset-default} shows a way.

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{6in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat tapset/time-common.stp
global __time_vars
function timer_begin (name) { __time_vars[name] = __time_value () }
function timer_end (name) { return __time_value() - __time_vars[name] }

# cat tapset/time-default.stp
function __time_value () { return gettimeofday_us () }

# cat tapset-time-user.stp
probe begin
{
  timer_begin ("bench")
  for (i=0; i<100; i++) ; 
  printf ("%d cycles\n", timer_end ("bench"))
  exit ()
}
function __time_value () { return get_ticks () } # override for greater precision

\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Providing an overrideable default.}
\label{fig:tapset-default}
\end{figure}

A tapset that exports only {\em data} may be as useful as ones that
exports functions or probe point aliases (see below).  Such global
data can be computed and kept up-to-date using probes internal to the
tapset.  Any outside reference to the global variable would
incidentally activate all the required probes.

\subsection{Probe point aliases}

\nomenclature{probe point alias}{A probe point that is defined in
terms of another probe point.}  Probe point aliases allow creation of
new probe points from existing ones.  This is useful if the new probe
points are named to provide a higher level of abstraction.  For
example, the system-calls tapset defines probe point aliases of the
form \verb+syscall.open+ etc., in terms of lower level ones like
\verb+kernel.function("sys_open")+.  Even if some future kernel
renames \verb+sys_open+, the aliased name can remain valid.

A probe point alias definition looks like a normal probe.  Both start
with the keyword \verb+probe+ and have a probe handler statement block
at the end.  But where a normal probe just lists its probe points, an
alias creates a new name using the assignment (\verb+=+) operator.
Another probe that names the new probe point will create an actual
probe, with the handler of the alias {\em prepended}.

This prepending behavior serves several purposes.  It allows the alias
definition to ``preprocess'' the context of the probe before passing
control to the user-specified handler.  This has several possible uses:
\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb+if ($flag1 != $flag2) next+ & skip probe unless given condition is met \\
\verb+name = "foo"+ & supply probe-describing values \\
\verb+var = $var+ & extract target variable to plain local variable \\ %$
\end{tabular}

Figure~\ref{fig:probe-alias} demonstrates a probe point alias
definition as well as its use.  It demonstrates how a single probe
point alias can expand to multiple probe points, even to other
aliases.  It also includes probe point wildcarding.  These functions
are designed to compose sensibly.

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat probe-alias.stp
probe syscallgroup.io = syscall.open, syscall.close, 
                        syscall.read, syscall.write
{ groupname = "io" }

probe syscallgroup.process = syscall.fork, syscall.execve
{ groupname = "process" }

probe syscallgroup.* 
{ groups [execname() . "/" . groupname] ++ }

probe end
{
  foreach (eg+ in groups)
    printf ("%s: %d\n", eg, groups[eg])
}

global groups

# stap probe-alias.stp
05-wait_for_sys/io: 19
10-udev.hotplug/io: 17
20-hal.hotplug/io: 12
X/io: 73
apcsmart/io: 59
[...]
make/io: 515
make/process: 16
[...]
xfce-mcs-manage/io: 3
xfdesktop/io: 5
[...]
xmms/io: 7070
zsh/io: 78
zsh/process: 5
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Classified system call activity.}
\label{fig:probe-alias}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Embedded C}
\label{embedded-c}

Sometimes, a tapset needs provide data values from the kernel that
cannot be extracted using ordinary target variables (\verb+$var+).  %$
This may be because the values are in complicated data structures, may
require lock awareness, or are defined by layers of macros.  Systemtap
provides an ``escape hatch'' to go beyond what the language can safely
offer.  In certain contexts, you may embed plain raw C in tapsets,
exchanging power for the safety guarantees listed in
section~\ref{sec:safety}.  End-user scripts {\em may not} include
embedded C code, unless systemtap is run with the \verb+-g+ (``guru''
mode) option.  Tapset scripts get guru mode privileges automatically.
\nomenclature{embedded C}{Special syntax permitting tapsets to include
literal C code.}

Embedded C can be the body of a script function.  Instead enclosing
the function body statements in \verb+{+ and \verb+}+, use \verb+%{+
and \verb+%}+.  Any enclosed C code is literally transcribed into the
kernel module: it is up to you to make it safe and correct.  In order
to take parameters and return a value, a pointer macro \verb+THIS+ is
available.  Function parameters and a place for the return value are
available as fields of that pointer.  The familiar data-gathering
functions \verb+pid()+, \verb+execname()+, and their neighbours are
all embedded C functions.  Figure~\ref{fig:embedded-C} contains
another example.

Since systemtap cannot examine the C code to infer these types, an
optional\footnote{This is only necessary if the types cannot be
inferred from other sources, such as the call sites.} annotation
syntax is available to assist the type inference process.  Simply
suffix parameter names and/or the function name with \verb+:string+ or
\verb+:long+ to designate the string or numeric type.  In addition,
the script may include a \verb+%{+ \verb+%}+ block at the outermost
level of the script, in order to transcribe declarative code like
\verb+#include <linux/foo.h>+.  These enable the embedded C functions
to refer to general kernel types.

There are a number of safety-related constraints that should be
observed by developers of embedded C code.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Do not dereference pointers that are not known or testable valid.
\item Do not call any kernel routine that may cause a sleep or fault.
\item Consider possible undesirable recursion, where your embedded C
function calls a routine that may be the subject of a probe.  If that
probe handler calls your embedded C function, you may suffer infinite
regress.  Similar problems may arise with respect to non-reentrant
locks.
\item If locking of a data structure is necessary, use a
\verb+trylock+ type call to attempt to take the lock.  If that fails,
give up, do not block.
\end{enumerate}

\begin{figure}[!ht]
\begin{boxedminipage}{4.5in}
\begin{verbatim}
# cat embedded-C.stp
%{
#include <linux/utsname.h>
%}

function utsname:string (field:long)
%{
  if (down_read_trylock (& uts_sem))
    {
      const char *f =
         (THIS->field == 0 ? system_utsname.sysname :
          THIS->field == 1 ? system_utsname.nodename :
          THIS->field == 2 ? system_utsname.release :
          THIS->field == 3 ? system_utsname.version :
          THIS->field == 4 ? system_utsname.machine :
          THIS->field == 5 ? system_utsname.domainname : "");
      strlcpy (THIS->__retvalue, f, MAXSTRINGLEN);
      up_read (& uts_sem);
    }
%}

probe begin
{
  printf ("%s %s\n", utsname(0), utsname(2))
  exit ()
}

# stap -g embedded-C.stp
Linux 2.6.15
\end{verbatim}
\end{boxedminipage}
\caption{Embedded C function.}
\label{fig:embedded-C}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Naming conventions}

Using the tapset search mechanism just described, potentially many
script files can become selected for inclusion in a single session.
This raises the problem of name collisions, where different tapsets
accidentally use the same names for functions/globals.  This can
result in errors at translate or run time.

To control this problem, systemtap tapset developers are advised to
follow naming conventions.  Here is some of the guidance.
\nomenclature{naming convention}{Guidelines for naming variables and
functions to prevent unintentional duplication.}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Pick a unique name for your tapset, and substitute it for
{\em TAPSET} below.
\item Separate identifiers meant to be used by tapset users from
those that are internal implementation artifacts.
\item Document the first set in the appropriate \verb+man+ pages.
\item Prefix the names of external identifiers with {\em TAPSET}\_ if
there is any likelihood of collision with other tapsets or end-user
scripts.
\item Prefix any probe point aliases with an appropriate prefix.
\item Prefix the names of internal identifiers with \_\_{\em TAPSET}\_.
\end{enumerate}

\subsection{Exercises}

\begin{enumerate}
\item Write a tapset that implements deferred and ``cancelable''
logging.  Export a function that enqueues a text string (into some
private array), returning an id token.  Include a timer-based probe
that periodically flushes the array to the standard log output.
Export another function that, if the entry was not already flushed,
allows a text string to be cancelled from the queue.

\item Create a ``relative timestamp'' tapset with functions return all
the same values as the ones in the timestamp tapset, except that they
are made relative to the start time of the script.

\item Create a tapset that exports a global array that contains a
mapping of recently seen process ID numbers to process names.
Intercept key system calls (\verb+execve+?) to update the list
incrementally.

\item Send your tapset ideas to the mailing list!
\end{enumerate}

\section{Further information}

For further information about systemtap, several sources are available.

There are \verb+man+ pages:

\begin{tabular}{rl}
\verb+stap+ & systemtap program usage, language summary \\
\verb+stapfuncs+ & functions provided by tapsets \\
\verb+stapprobes+ & probes / probe aliases provided by tapsets \\
\verb+stapex+ & some example scripts \\
\end{tabular}

Then, there is the source code itself.  Since systemtap is {\em free
software}, you should have available the entire source code.  The
source files in the \verb+tapset/+ directory are also packaged along
with the systemtap binary.  Since systemtap reads these files rather
than their documentation, they are the most reliable way to see what's
inside all the tapsets.  Use the \verb+-v+ (verbose) command line
option, several times if you like, to show inner workings.
\nomenclature{free software}{Software licensed under terms such as the
GNU GPL, which aims to enforce certain specified user freedoms such
as study, modification, and sharing.}

Finally, there is the project web site
(\verb+http://sources.redhat.com/systemtap/+) with several articles,
an archived public mailing list for users and developers
(\verb+systemtap@sources.redhat.com+), and a live GIT source
repository.  Come join us!


\appendix

\section{Glossary}
\renewcommand{\nomname}{}
\printglossary
\begin{htmlonly}
{\em Sorry, not available in HTML.}
\end{htmlonly}

\section{Errors}

We explain some common systemtap error messages in this section.  Most
error messages include line/character numbers with which one can
locate the precise location of error in the script code.  There is
sometimes a subsequent or prior line that elaborates.

{\large {\em error} {\tt at:} {\em filename}:{\em line}:{\em column}: {\em details}}

\subsection{Parse errors}

\begin{description}
\item{\bf parse error: expected {\em foo}, saw {\em bar} $\ldots$} \\
The script contained a grammar error.  A different type of construct
was expected in the given context.

\item{\bf parse error: embedded code in unprivileged script} \\ The
script contained unsafe constructs such as embedded C (section
\ref{embedded-c}), but was run without the \verb+-g+ (guru mode)
option.  Confirm that the constructs are used safely, then try
again with \verb+-g+.
\end{description}

\subsection{Type errors}

\begin{description}
\item{\bf semantic error: type mismatch for identifier '{\em foo}'
$\ldots$ string vs. long} \\ In this case, the identifier {\em foo}
was previously inferred as a numeric type (``long''), but at the given
point is being used as a string.  Similar messages appear if an array
index or function parameter slot is used with conflicting types.

\item{\bf semantic error: unresolved type for identifier '{\em foo}'}
\\ The identifier {\em foo} was used, for example in a \verb+print+,
but without any operations that could assign it a type.  Similar
messages may appear if a symbol is misspelled by a typo.

\item{\bf semantic error: Expecting symbol or array index expression}
\\ Something other than an assignable lvalue was on the left hand sign
of an assignment.
\end{description}

\subsection{Symbol errors}

\begin{description}
\item{\bf while searching for arity {\em N} function, semantic error:
unresolved function call} \\ The script calls a function with {\em N}
arguments that does not exist.  The function may exist with different
arity.

\item{\bf semantic error: array locals not supported: $\ldots$} \\ An
array operation is present for which no matching global declaration
was found.  Similar messages appear if an array is used with
inconsistent arities.

\item{\bf semantic error: variable '{\em foo}' modified during 'foreach'} \\
The array {\em foo} is being modified (being assigned to or deleted from)
within an active \verb+foreach+ loop.  This invalid operation is also
detected within a function called from within the loop. 
\end{description}

\subsection{Probing errors }

\begin{description}
\item{\bf semantic error: probe point mismatch at position {\em N},
while resolving probe point {\em foo}} \\ A probe point was named that
neither directly understood by systemtap, nor defined as an alias by a
tapset script.  The divergence from the ``tree'' of probe point
namespace is at position {\em N} (starting with zero at left).

\item{\bf semantic error: no match for probe point, while resolving
probe point {\em foo}} \\ A probe point cannot be resolved for any of
a variety of reasons.  It may be a debuginfo-based probe point such as
\verb+kernel.function("foobar")+ where no \verb+foobar+ function was
found.  This can occur if the script specifies a wildcard on function
names, or an invalid file name or source line number.

\item{\bf semantic error: unresolved target-symbol expression} \\ A
target variable was referred to in a probe handler that was not
resolvable.  Or, a target variable is not valid at all in a context
such as a script function.  This variable may have been elided by an
optimizing compiler, or may not have a suitable type, or there might
just be an annoying bug somewhere.  Try again with a slightly
different probe point (use \verb+statement()+ instead of
\verb+function()+) to search for a more cooperative neighbour in the
same area.

\item{\bf semantic error: libdwfl failure $\ldots$} \\ There was a
problem processing the debugging information.  It may simply be
missing, or may have some consistency / correctness problems.  Later
compilers tend to produce better debugging information, so if you can
upgrade and recompile your kernel/application, it may help.

\item{\bf semantic error: cannot find {\em foo} debuginfo} \\ Similarly,
suitable debugging information was not found.  Check that your kernel
build/installation includes a matching version of debugging data.
\end{description}

\subsection{Runtime errors}

\begin{description}

\item{\bf WARNING: Number of errors: {\em N}, skipped probes: {\em M}} \\
Errors and/or skipped probes occurred during this run.
\nomenclature{skipped probe}{A probe handler that should have run but
couldn't, due to contention or temporary resource problems.}

\item{\bf division by 0} \\ The script code performed an invalid
division.

\item{\bf aggregate element not found} \\ An statistics extractor
function other than \verb+@count+ was invoked on an aggregate that has
not had any values accumulated yet.  This is similar to a division by
zero.

\item{\bf aggregation overflow} \\ An array containing aggregate
values contains too many distinct key tuples at this time.

\item{\bf MAXNESTING exceeded} \\ Too many levels of function call nesting
were attempted.

\item{\bf MAXACTION exceeded} \\ The probe handler attempted to execute
too many statements.

\item{\bf kernel/user string copy fault at {\em 0xaddr}} \\
The probe handler attempted to copy a string from kernel or user space
at an invalid address. 

\item{\bf pointer dereference fault} \\ 
There was a fault encountered during a pointer dereference operation such
as a target variable evaluation.

\end{description}


\section{Acknowledgments}

The author thanks Martin Hunt, Will Cohen, and Jim Keniston for
improvement advice for this paper.

\end{document}